| 释义 |
- Intelligibility
- Mutually intelligible languages or varieties of one language
- Asymmetric intelligibility
- List of mutually intelligible languages Written and spoken forms Spoken forms mainly Written forms mainly
- List of mutually intelligible varieties
- Dialects or registers of one language sometimes considered separate languages
- Dialect continua Romance
- See also
- References
- Further reading
- External links
{{Short description|Ability of speakers of two language varieties to understand the other}}In linguistics, mutual intelligibility is a relationship between languages or dialects in which speakers of different but related varieties can readily understand each other without prior familiarity or special effort. It is sometimes used as an important criterion for distinguishing languages from dialects, although sociolinguistic factors are often also used. Intelligibility between languages can be asymmetric, with speakers of one understanding more of the other than speakers of the other understanding the first. When it is relatively symmetric, it is characterized as "mutual". It exists in differing degrees among many related or geographically proximate languages of the world, often in the context of a dialect continuum. Linguistic distance is the name for the concept of calculating a measurement for how different languages are from one another. The higher the linguistic distance, the lower the mutual intelligibility. One common metric used is the Levenshtein distance. Intelligibility{{unreferenced section|date=February 2010}}For individuals to achieve moderate proficiency or understanding in a language (called L2) other than their first language (L1) typically requires considerable time and effort through study and/or practical application[1]. Advanced speakers of a second language typically aim for intelligibility, especially in situations where they work in their second language and the necessity of being understood is high[2]. However, many groups of languages are partly mutually intelligible, i.e. most speakers of one language find it relatively easy to achieve some degree of understanding in the related language(s). Often the languages are genetically related, and they are likely to be similar to each other in grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, or other features. Intelligibility among languages can vary between individuals or groups within a language population according to their knowledge of various registers and vocabulary in their own language, their exposure to additional related languages, their interest in or familiarity with other cultures, the domain of discussion, psycho-cognitive traits, the mode of language used (written vs. oral), and other factors. Mutually intelligible languages or varieties of one languageThere is no formal distinction between two distinct languages and two varieties of a single language, but some linguists use mutual intelligibility as one of the primary factors in deciding between the two cases.[3][4] Some linguists[4] claim that mutual intelligibility is, ideally at least, the primary criterion separating languages from dialects. On the other hand, speakers of closely related languages can often communicate with each other; thus there are varying degrees of mutual intelligibility, and often other criteria are also used. As an example, in the case of a linear dialect continuum that shades gradually between varieties, where speakers near the center can understand the varieties at both ends, but speakers at one end cannot understand the speakers at the other end, the entire chain is often considered a single language. If the central varieties then die out and only the varieties at both ends survive, they may then be reclassified as two languages, even though no actual language change has occurred. In addition, political and social conventions often override considerations of mutual intelligibility. For example, the varieties of Chinese are often considered a single language even though there is usually no mutual intelligibility between geographically separated varieties. Another similar example would be varieties of Arabic. In contrast, there is often significant intelligibility between different Scandinavian languages, but as each of them has its own standard form, they are classified as separate languages.[5] There is also significant intelligibility between Thai languages of different regions of Thailand. To deal with the conflict in cases such as Arabic, Chinese and German, the term Dachsprache (a sociolinguistic "umbrella language") is sometimes seen: Chinese and German are languages in the sociolinguistic sense even though some speakers cannot understand each other without recourse to a standard or prestige form. Asymmetric intelligibilityAsymmetric intelligibility refers to two languages that are considered partially mutually intelligible, but where one group of speakers has more difficulty understanding the other language than the other way around. There can be various reasons for this. If, for example, one language is related to another but has simplified its grammar, the speakers of the original language may understand the simplified language, but less vice versa. For example, Dutch speakers tend to find it easier to understand Afrikaans than vice versa as a result of Afrikaans's simplified grammar.[7] Perhaps the most common reason for apparent asymmetric intelligibility is that speakers of one variety have more exposure to the other than vice versa. For example, speakers of Scottish English have frequent exposure to standard American English through movies and TV programs, whereas speakers of American English have little exposure to Scottish English; hence, American English speakers often find it difficult to understand Scottish English or, especially, Scots (which differs significantly from standard Scottish English), whereas Scots tend to have few problems understanding standard American English. Northern Germanic languages spoken in Scandinavia form a dialect continuum where two furthermost dialects have almost no mutual intelligibility. As such, spoken Danish and Swedish normally have low mutual intelligibility,[7] but Swedes in the Öresund region (including Malmö and Helsingborg), across a strait from the Danish capital Copenhagen, understand Danish somewhat better, largely due to the proximity of the region to Danish-speaking areas (see Mutual intelligibility in North Germanic languages). While Norway was under Danish rule, the Bokmål written standard of Norwegian originates from Dano-Norwegian, a koiné language that evolved among the urban elite in Norwegian cities during the later years of the union. Additionally, Norwegian assimilated a considerable amount of Danish vocabulary as well as traditional Danish expressions.[6] As a consequence, spoken mutual intelligibility is not reciprocal.[6] Similarly, in Germany and Italy, standard German or Italian speakers may have great difficulty understanding the "dialects" from regions other than their own, but virtually all "dialect" speakers learn the standard languages in school and from the media. List of mutually intelligible languagesBelow is an incomplete list of fully and partially mutually intelligible varieties sometimes considered languages. Written and spoken forms- Akha, Honi, Hani (variety of different written scripts)[43]
- Assyrian Neo-Aramaic: Lishanid Noshan[44] (partially and asymmetrically) and Hulaulá[45] (partially and asymmetrically) (because Assyrian Neo-Aramaic is usually written in the Syriac alphabet and the latter two are usually written in the Hebrew alphabet)
- Dari: Tajik[46] (because, currently, Tajik is usually written using Cyrillic script, while Dari is usually written in the Persian alphabet).
- Dungan: Mandarin, especially with Central Plains Mandarin[47] (partially; Dungan is usually written in Cyrillic and Mandarin usually in Chinese characters)
- German: Yiddish[48] (because German is usually written in Latin script and Yiddish usually in the Hebrew alphabet). However, Yiddish's use of many borrowed words, chiefly from Hebrew and Slavic languages, makes it more difficult for a German speaker to understand spoken Yiddish than the reverse.
- Spanish: Judaeo-Spanish (because Spanish is usually written in Latin script and Judaeo-Spanish usually in the Hebrew alphabet).[49]
- Persian: Tajik[46] (because, currently, Persian is usually written in the Persian alphabet, but Tajik is usually written using the Cyrillic script)
- Polish: Ukrainian and Belarusian[50] (both partially, because Belarusian and Ukrainian are written in Cyrillic, while Polish is written in Latin)
- Tajik: Persian and Dari[46] (because, currently, Tajik is usually written in Cyrillic, whereas Persian and Dari are usually written in the Persian alphabet)
- Thai: Lao, Isaan, Southern Thai, Northern Thai, Shan and Lü[51] (both partially and asymmetrically, with every language having its own script while Thai and Southern Thai use the same script.)
Written forms mainly In: Actas del Congreso Internacional Luso-Español de Lengua y Cultura en la Frontera, Cáceres, Universidad de Extremadura, 175–187.
33. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/esport.htm|title=Comparação Português e Castelhano|website=www.omniglot.com}}
34. ^{{cite web|url=http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/biblioteca/observlingport.pdf|title=Algumas observações sobre a noção de língua portuguesa|publisher=}}
35. ^{{cite web | url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/oci | title=Occitan}}
36. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=48&menu=004 |title=UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile |publisher=Lmp.ucla.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-09-04}}
37. ^{{cite web | url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ita | title=Italian}}
38. ^1 {{cite book |title=Monolingualism and bilingualism: Lessons from Canada and Spain | page=80 | last=Wright | first=Sue | year=1996 |publisher=Multilingual Matters Ltd | isbn=978-1-85359-354-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a2YtdM1kNOcC&pg=PA80&dq=Galician+and+Spanish+mutual+intelligibility#v=onepage&q=Galician%20and%20Spanish%20mutual%20intelligibility&f=false}}
39. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/spa|title=Spanish|publisher=}}
40. ^https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/italo-dalmatian
41. ^{{Cite book|title = Diglossia and Language Contact: Language Variation and Change in North Africa|url = https://books.google.com/?id=ygFeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA227&lpg=PA227&dq=tounsi#v=onepage&q=tounsi&f=false|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = 24 April 2014|isbn = 978-1-139-86707-8|first = Lotfi|last = Sayahi}}
42. ^1 2 {{cite web|last=Angogo|first=Rachel|title=LANGUAGE AND POLITICS IN SOUTH AFRICA|url=http://elanguage.net/journals/sal/article/viewFile/1038/1099|work=Studies in African Linguistics Volume 9, Number 2|publisher=elanguage.net|accessdate=30 September 2013}}
43. ^{{cite journal|last1=Katsura|first1=M.|title=Phonemes of the Alu Dialect of Akha|journal=Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics No.3|date=1973|volume=3|issue=3|pages=35–54}}
44. ^1 Heinrichs, Wolfhart (ed.) (1990). Studies in Neo-Aramaic. Scholars Press: Atlanta, Georgia. {{ISBN|1-55540-430-8}}.
45. ^Beyer, Klaus; John F. Healey (trans.) (1986). The Aramaic Language: its distribution and subdivisions. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. p. 44.
46. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite web|url=http://www.ucis.pitt.edu/nceeer/2005_817_17g_Beeman.pdf|title=Dari/Persian/Tajik languages|publisher=}}
47. ^{{cite journal|first=Svetlana|last=Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer|title=Soviet Dungan nationalism: a few comments on their origin and language|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZoNCAAAAYAAJ&q=shivaza&dq=shivaza|journal=Monumenta Serica|volume=33|year=1977|pages=349–362|accessdate=2011-02-15}} p. 351.
48. ^{{cite book | title= Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: origins, experience and culture, Volume 1| page=192 | last=Avrum Ehrlich | first=Mark | year=2009 | publisher=ABC-CLIO | isbn=978-1-85109-873-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&pg=PA192&dq=German+and+Yiddish+mutual+intelligibility#v=onepage&q=German%20and%20Yiddish%20mutual%20intelligibility&f=false}}
49. ^{{cite web | url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/ladi1251 | title=Glottolog 3.3 - Ladino}}
50. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.nadbuhom.pl/art_2638.html |title=Gdzie "sicz", a gdzie "porohy"?! (ст. 15), Part II |last=Łabowicz |first=Ludmiła |accessdate=19 July 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501025506/http://www.nadbuhom.pl/art_2638.html |archivedate=2013-05-01}}
51. ^{{cite web|url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/messeas/node3.html|title=Ausbau and Abstand languages|website=ccat.sas.upenn.edu}}
52. ^{{cite book | title=Language and nationalism in Europe| page=106 | last=Barbour | first=Stephen |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925085-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ixmu8Iga7gC&pg=PA106}}
53. ^{{cite web | url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/fra | title=French}}
54. ^Gooskens & Heeringa (2004)
55. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.let.rug.nl/gooskens/pdf/publ_ZDL_2009b.pdf|title=Gooskens et al., Cross-Border Intelligibility on the Intelligibility of Low German among Speakers of Danish and Dutch|publisher=}}
56. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.let.rug.nl/gooskens/pdf/pres_exapp2010a_2010.pdf|title=Mutual intelligibility of Dutch-German cognates by humans and computers|date=12 November 2010|author=Vincent J. van Heuven|author2=Charlotte Gooskens|author3=Renée van Bezooijen}}
57. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 {{cite web|url=http://chuvashlar.blogspot.com/2012/10/the-internal-classification-migration.html|title=çuvaşlar: The Internal Classification & Migration of Turkic Languages|last=G|publisher=|date=7 Ekim 2012 Pazar}}
58. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/kirundi.php|title=Kirundi language, alphabet and pronunciation|website=www.omniglot.com}}
59. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.alsintl.com/resources/languages/Tokelauan/|title=Tokelauan - Language Information & Resources|website=www.alsintl.com}}
60. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.aina.org/articles/rothbotmal.pdf/|title=Remarks on the Historical Background of the Modern Assyrian Language |author=Geoffrey Khan |publisher=University of Cambridge}}
61. ^Maclean, Arthur John (1895). Grammar of the dialects of vernacular Syriac: as spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, north-west Persia, and the Plain of Mosul: with notices of the vernacular of the Jews of Azerbaijan and of Zakhu near Mosul. Cambridge University Press, London.
62. ^Jastrow, Otto (1990). Personal and Demonstrative pronouns in Central Neo-Aramaic. In Wolfhart Heinrichs (ed.), Studies in Neo-Aramaic, pp. 89–103. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press. {{ISBN|1-55540-430-8}}.
63. ^Fox, Samuel. 2002. "A Neo-Aramaic Dialect of Bohtan", in W. Arnold and H. Bobzin, "Sprich doch mit deinen Knechten aramäisch, wir verstehen es!" 60 Beiträge zur Semitistik Festschrift für Otto Jastrow zum 60. Geburtstag, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 165–180.
64. ^Takashina, Yoshiyuki.1990. "Some Remarks on Modern Aramaic of Hertevin." Journal of Asian and African Studies 40: 85–132
65. ^Greenfield, Jonas. 1978. "The Dialects of Early Aramaic". Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Colloquium on Aramaic Studies 37: 93–99
66. ^"Dictamen de l'Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l'entitat del valencià" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217124928/http://www.avl.gva.es/img/EdicionsPublicacions/AcordsGenerals/NOMENTITAT.pdf |date=2008-12-17 }}. Report from Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua about denomination and identity of Valencian.
67. ^{{cite journal |last=Gumperz |first=John J. |title=Language Problems in the Rural Development of North India |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=16 |issue=2 |date=February 1957 |pages=251–259 |doi=10.2307/2941382|jstor=2941382 }}
68. ^{{cite book |title=Learner English: a teacher's guide to interference and other problems |page=279 |last=Swan |first=Michael |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77939-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UIuWj9fQfQC&pg=PA279&dq=Indonesian+and+Malay+mutual+intelligibility#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
69. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=OtWdhQ7vc6kC&pg=PA71&dq=Indonesian+Malaysian+Malay+differences#v=onepage&q=Indonesian%20Malaysian%20Malay%20differences&f=false|title=The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar|last=Adelaar|first=K. Alexander|last2=Himmelmann|first2=Nikolaus|date=2013-03-07|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136755095|language=en}}
70. ^1 {{cite book|last=Kordić |first=Snježana |authorlink=Snježana Kordić |year=2010 |language=Serbo-Croatian |title=Jezik i nacionalizam |trans-title=Language and Nationalism |url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf |deadurl=no |series=Rotulus Universitas |location=Zagreb |publisher=Durieux |pages=101–108 |isbn=978-953-188-311-5 |lccn=2011520778 |oclc=729837512 |ol=15270636W |archivedate=8 July 2012 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/690BiBe4T?url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf |accessdate=3 August 2014}}
71. ^{{cite book |last=Kordić |first=Snježana |authorlink=Snježana Kordić |editor1-last=Krause |editor1-first= Marion |editor2-last=Sappok |editor2-first=Christian |title=Slavistische Linguistik 2002: Referate des XXVIII. Konstanzer Slavistischen Arbeitstreffens, Bochum 10.-12. September 2002 |series=Slavistishe Beiträge ; vol. 434 |publisher= Otto Sagner |pages=110–114 |language=German |chapter=Pro und kontra: "Serbokroatisch" heute |trans-chapter=Pro and contra: "Serbo-Croatian" nowadays |chapterurl=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430499.PRO_UND_KONTRA_SERBOKROATISCH.PDF |location=Munich |year=2004 |isbn=978-3-87690-885-4 |oclc=56198470 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/69f5n0ek4?url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430499.PRO_UND_KONTRA_SERBOKROATISCH.PDF }} (ÖNB).
72. ^{{cite book|title=Language and identity in the Balkans: Serbo-Croatian and its disintegration |page=14 |last=Greenberg |first=Robert David |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925815-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZvDJQHaUZkC&pg=PA13&dq=bosnian+serbian+croatian+language+mutual&cd=1#v=onepage&q=renamed%20these%20classes&f=false}}
73. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=F7-Bees_VvAC&pg=PA280&dq=%D0%97%D0%B0+%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD+%D1%80%D1%8A%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81+%D0%BE%D1%82+18+%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA,+%D0%B2:+%D0%91%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82+%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7+%D0%A5%D0%A5+%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Българският език през ХХ век|first=Василка|last=Радева|date=15 July 2018|publisher=Pensoft Publishers|via=Google Books|isbn=9789546421135}}
74. ^[https://archive.is/20121206025434/http://www.dalityapi.com/2007_08_01_archive.html ]
75. ^{{cite web | title=Moldovan (limba moldovenească / лимба молдовеняскэ) | url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/moldovan.htm}}
76. ^David Dalby, 1999/2000, The Linguasphere register of the world’s languages and speech communities. Observatoire Linguistique, Linguasphere Press. Volume 2, p. 390-410 (zone 51). Oxford.
Further reading- {{cite book | title = Dialect intelligibility testing | given = Eugene H. | surname = Casad | publisher = Summer Institute of Linguistics | year = 1974 | isbn = 978-0-88312-040-8 | url = https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/8863 }}
- {{cite book | chapter = Experimental methods for measuring intelligibility of closely related language varieties | given = Charlotte | surname = Gooskens | pages = 195–213 | chapter-url = http://www.let.rug.nl/gooskens/pdf/publ_handbook_of_sociolinguistics_2013.pdf | title = The Oxford Handbook of Sociolinguistics | editor1-given = Robert | editor1-surname = Bayley | editor2-given = Richard | editor2-surname = Cameron | editor3-given = Ceil| editor3-surname = Lucas|editor-link3=Ceil Lucas | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-0-19-974408-4 }}
- {{cite journal | title = Mutual intelligibility between closely related languages in Europe | given1 = Charlotte | surname1 = Gooskens | given2 = Vincent J. | surname2 = van Heuven | given3 = Jelena | surname3 = Golubović | given4 = Anja | surname4 = Schüppert | given5 = Femke | surname5 = Swarte | given6 = Stefanie | surname6 = Voigt | journal = International Journal of Multilingualism | volume = 15 | issue = 2 | pages = 169–193 | year = 2017 | doi = 10.1080/14790718.2017.1350185 }}
- {{cite journal | title = Dialects as Optimal Communication Networks | given = Joseph E. | surname = Grimes | journal = Language | volume = 50 | number = 2 | year = 1974 | pages = 260–269 | jstor = 412437 }}
External links- Harold Schiffman, "Linguists' Definition: mutual intelligibility". University of Pennsylvania.
- Common words between languages
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mutual Intelligibility}} 5 : Languages|Language varieties and styles|Lists of languages|Language comparison|Language versus dialect |