“Water supply and sanitation in Jordan”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Water supply and sanitation in Jordan is characterized by severe water scarcity, which has been exacerbated by forced immigration as a result of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Six-Day War in 1967, the Gulf War of 1990, the Iraq War of 2003 and the Syrian Civil War since 2011. Jordan is considered as one of the ten most water scarce countries in the world. High population growth, the depletion of groundwater reserves and the impacts of climate change are likely to aggravate the situation in the future.

The country's major surface water resources, the Jordan River and the Yarmouk River, are shared with Israel and Syria who leave only a small amount for Jordan. The Disi Water Conveyance Project from the non-renewable Disi aquifer to the capital Amman, opened in July 2013, increases available resources by about 12%. It is planned to bridge the remaining gap between demand and supply through increased use of reclaimed water and desalinated sea water to be provided through the Red Sea-Dead Sea canal.

Despite Jordan's severe water scarcity, more than 97% of Jordanians have access to an improved water source and 93% have access to improved sanitation. This is one of the highest rates in the Middle East and North Africa.^[1] However, water supply is intermittent and it is common to store water in rooftop tanks. The level of water lost through leakage, underregistration, and theft in municipal water supply (non-revenue water) is approximately 51%.^[5] Water tariffs are subsidized. A National Water Strategy, adopted in 2009, emphasizes desalination and wastewater reuse. The country receives substantial foreign aid for investments in the water sector, accounting for about 30% of water investment financing.^[6]

Modern history and recent developments

The modern history of the Jordanian water sector is characterized by a substantial development of its infrastructure to cope with a large increase of population and by the simultaneous modernization of its institutions to cope with the challenge of developing, operating and maintaining the country's water infrastructure.

1946-1971: The Early Days

Shortly after the independence of Jordan in 1946 and the annexation of the West Bank, only a small share of the population of less than half a million had access to piped water on their premises. Drinking water was supplied from local springs; there were no sewers and little irrigation. This early period of independence was characterized by a foiled attempt to develop the water resources share with Syria, the building of limited irrigation infrastructure in the Northern Jordan Valley, and the creation of professional organizations in charge of the water sector.^[14]

Between 1953 and 1955 the United States Special Representative for Water in the Middle East, Eric Johnston, had negotiated the Jordan Valley Unified Water Plan to jointly develop the water resources of the Jordan River Basin between Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan. Although the Plan, known as the Johnston Plan, was rejected by the Arab League on political grounds, Jordan used it as a basis for all its future development of water resources. The Plan foresaw the construction of a dam at Maqarin on the Yarmouk River at the Jordanian-Syrian border as well as a diversion weir further downstream to divert the Yarmouk waters for irrigation of the Jordan Valley. Based on a 1953 water sharing treaty with Syria, Jordan made plans and sought funding for the dam from the United States. Israel, which diverted water from the Yarmouk to the Sea of Galilee for its own use, was not consulted, and the U.S. decided not to fund the Maqarin dam. Thus, much of the river's winter flows drained to the Dead Sea and left insufficient water resources for the development of irrigation in Jordan. Despite this, Jordan embarked on the construction of the East Ghor Canal with U.S. funding to develop irrigation in the Northeastern Jordan Valley with the limited water it had available.^[14]

For the development of its water infrastructure, Jordan needed to build strong organizations with qualified personnel. For that purpose, two laws were passed in 1959 to create respectively the East Ghor Canal Authority responsible for the development of irrigation infrastructure, and the Central Water Authority responsible for the development of drinking water supply infrastructure. These institutions operated outside of government routine and offered better pay than the regular public service in order to attract the motivated and talented employees required for the important task to develop the country's water sector.^[14] These efforts, however, were thwarted when Jordan lost the West Bank to Israel, and with it about a third of its population, in the Six-Day War of 1967, and during an ensuing period of internal disorder and violence known as the Black September that lasted until 1971.

1972-1994: Infrastructure Development, Institution Building and Regional Water Sharing

From the early 1970s onwards the country's water infrastructure was expanded significantly with the construction of the King Talal Dam completed in 1977 and the completion of the East Ghor Canal (renamed King Abdullah Canal) in 1987. The country's first wastewater treatment plant at Ain Ghazal had been commissioned in 1968, but the construction of other wastewater treatment plants was addressed in only beginning in the late 1970s. In 1985, the largest wastewater treatment plant in the country was commissioned in As-Samra, serving Greater Amman. The plant used the stabilization pond technology, a natural technology that needed no electricity.

In terms of institutions, the two autonomous water sector institutions created in the 1959 had been merged into the Natural Resources Authority in 1965, but this overly centralized arrangement including non-water functions such as mining did not prove to be successful. Therefore, in a further institutional shift, in 1973 three new organizations were created, each by its own law: The Amman Water and Sewer Authority (AWSA), the Drinking Water Supply Corporation (DWSC) in charge of water supply in the areas outside the capital, and the Jordan Valley Commission (JVC).^[14] In the meantime, Jordan's population had grown to 1.5 million because of natural growth and the influx of Palestinian refugees in 1967. The growing capital ran out of water and its supply became intermittent. In order to overcome the shortage, the Cabinet approved two projects in 1977: The first was the construction of a carrier from Deiralla in the Jordan Valley to pump drinking water to Amman, and the second was the construction of a carrier from the Azraq oasis east of the capital. Both projects were completed in the 1980s. At the same time, it was decided to reuse treated wastewater from Amman for irrigation in the Jordan Valley to compensate for the loss of freshwater.^[7]

During this period a first National Water Master Plan was developed and finalized in 1977 with the assistance of the German government and its technical assistance agency GTZ.

A separate water balance study was commissioned by the government at the time and was completed by Howard Humphrey and Partners in 1978. This study showed that water resources were greatly insufficient to achieve the country's goals for irrigation development and to provide its growing population with sufficient drinking water. On the basis of this study, Jordan approached the Iraqi government in order to explore the possibility to transfer water from the Euphrates to Jordan. The Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, who was closely allied with Jordan at the time, approved the request, but a feasibility study done in the mid-80s showed that the long-distance transfer would be prohibitively expensive. After abandoning this option, the government shifted its attention to the Disi Water Conveyance Project that would bring fossil groundwater from the border area with Saudi Arabia to Amman.^[7]

In terms of institutional development, the government decided to return to the earlier structure of creating two separate autonomous agencies in charge of the water sector. In 1977, it created by law the Jordan Valley Authority (JVA) by merging the JVC and parts of other organizations, charging it with the comprehensive development of the Jordan Valley. In 1983, through another law it created the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ), responsible for drinking water supply and sanitation in Jordan. Initially, the heads of both Authorities had the rank of Ministers and reported directly to the Prime Minister, until the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) was created in 1988 bringing the two agencies under it.^[8]

Another institutional shift occurred in 1993 when a World Bank water sector review suggested to bring in a private company to run the water and sanitation system of Amman, a move that was endorsed by the government. An important motivation for this step was to increase cost recovery.^[9]

In 1995, the Water Annex to the 1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty increased Jordan's available water resources through the delivery of water from the Sea of Galilee and a greater share of water from the Yarmouk River. At the same time it was decided to double the capacity of the Deiralla-Amman conveyor to pump the additional drinking water to Amman. While not mentioned in the Peace Treaty, the idea of a Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal, jointly planned by the two countries in order to raise the declining level of the Dead Sea and to provide more water for Jordan through desalination, gained impetus as a result of the Peace Treaty.

In summer 1998 a drinking water incident occurred in Amman, when water with an unpleasant smell came out of some taps. The incident became a tool in the succession struggle for the throne at a time when King Hussein lay dying. According to history professor Nigel Ashton, then-Water Minister Munther Haddadin was allied with then-Crown Prince Hassan. Hassan's opponents exploited the incident as evidence for “negligence and corruption in high places”, forcing the Water Minister to step down because of his alleged failure to properly oversee the operation of the Zai water treatment plant that treated water brought from the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan Valley to Amman. Along with two other former water ministers, Haddadin was indicted by the State Prosecutor, but the charges were dropped after Crown Prince Hasan was sidelined in favor of King Abdullah II who succeeded his father after his death in February 1999.^[10]

1995-today: megaprojects and modernization

Since the 1990s Jordan has pursued two megaprojects, the US$1 billion Disi Water Conveyance Project and the US$10 billion Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal. It also completed other large projects, including the construction of a modern wastewater treatment plant for Amman in As-Samra and the Al-Wehda Dam on the Yarmouk River. Both the Disi Conveyor and the Samra Plant attracted significant private financing for the first time in the history of the Jordanian water sector, despite low levels of cost recovery from water tariffs.

Following the influx of refugees from Kuwait following the latter's occupation by Iraq in 1990 and due to natural growth, Jordan's population had increased to more than 3 million by 1990 and 4.8 million by 2000. This further worsened the already precarious water balance. It also led to the overloading of the wastewater treatment plant in As-Samra. The plant was unable to produce the required effluent quality, negatively affecting irrigation in the Jordan Valley. It was thus decided to replace the plant with a more modern technology, involving the private sector. In 2003, a 25-year Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) contract was signed with a consortium including the French company Suez Environnement.^[11] The plant was commissioned in 2006, providing water of a considerably improved quality for irrigation. In terms of cooperation with Syria, in 1987 the two governments had signed a new water-sharing treaty that was more favorable to Syria compared to the 1953 treaty, acknowledging the increased water use for irrigation in the upper basin inside Syria. After much delay, it was decided in 2001 to reduce the size of the dam on the Yarmouk River compared to the originally planned Maqarin Dam. The dam, called Al-Wehda Dam (Unity Dam), was commissioned in 2011, but yielded much less water than anticipated due to Syrian abstractions upstream.

A digital National Water Master Plan was launched in 2004, replacing the first Master Plan. It was an integrated plan intended to enable decision makers to set policies and strategies based on planning scenarios derived from water consumption trends in various locations and sectors such as agriculture, municipal use and industry. The Master Plan was connected to a Water Information System (WIS) which was to contain all monitoring data related to demands and resources.^[12]^[13]

Concerning the institutional reform and modernization of the water sector, the management contract for Amman was awarded in 1999 to the French company Lyonnaise des Eaux. It brought about many improvements, although it fell short of contractual targets. In 2007 it ended and a subsidiary of WAJ in the form of a public company, Miyahuna (“Our Water”), was created. In 2004, a first commercially oriented public water company had been created as a subsidiary of WAJ in the Southern town of Aqaba, called the Aqaba Water Company (AWC). A third water company, the Yarmouk Water Company (YWC), was created in Northern Jordan in 2011. In 2013 Miyahuna was given the responsibility for water supply and sanitation in Madaba Governorate and in January 2014 in Zarqa Governorate under public-public management contracts, while the employees in these two governorates remain employees of WAJ.

In May 2009, King Abdullah gave the go-ahead for a new National Water Strategy until 2022, replacing an earlier Water Strategy from 1998. The strategy included investments of Jordanian Dinar 5.86 billion (US$8.24 billion) over a period of 15 years, corresponding to more than 160% of Jordan's GDP. It also foresaw a decreasing reliance on groundwater from 32% in 2007 to 17%, increased use of treated wastewater in agriculture from 10% to 13% and increased use of desalination from 1% to 31%. According to then-Minister of Water, Raed Abu Soud, even after the completion of the Disi Water Conveyance Project, the water deficit in 2022 would be about 500 million cubic metres, highlighting the need to include desalination under the Red Sea-Dead Sea canal in the strategy. The strategy also envisaged institutional reforms such as enacting a new water law, separating operational from administrative functions, as well as production from distribution operations, creating a Water Council with advisory functions and establishing a Water Regulatory Commission.^[26] While the legal and institutional reforms were not implemented, the Disi Water Conveyance Project was completed in 2013 by the Turkish firm Gama. The influx of about one million refugees from Syria since 2012 increased the population of Jordan to more than nine million. It also increased water demand substantially. For lack of finaning, the Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal is not being pursued any more in its original form for the time being. Instead, a scaled-down, more realistic version is being pursued. This project involves a water swap between Jordan and Israel, with Jordan supplying desalinated water from Aqaba to Southern Israel, while Israel provides additional water from the Sea of Galilee to Northern Jordan. Brine water from the desalination plant is to be supplied to the Dead Sea. As of 2015, the bidding for the desalination plant at Aqaba was under preparation.

Access

Jordan has reached a high level of providing water supply and sanitation services (see table). 97% of the population have access to improved water supply, 98% to improved sanitation, which is high compared to other developing countries and considering Jordan's very scarce resources.^[1] Although the physical infrastructure exists, a lack of available water causes a rising demand of bottled and tanked water for many households.^[14]

According to WAJ, only 65% of the population are connected to the sewerage system. The rest of those having access to improved sanitation uses on-site sanitation solutions such as septic tanks. These septic tanks, if not lined properly, may leak to the groundwater aquifers and contaminate them.

Service quality

Continuity of supply

Water supply in the Jordanian highlands, where most of the population lives, is generally intermittent. According to a 2008 study by the University of Michigan, water is delivered once a week in big cities like Amman and once every twelve days in some rural areas.^[15] According to a 2007 survey the mean rate of supply per week was 1.5 days in Madaba governorate, 2.9 days in Balqa governorate and 3.2 days in Zarqa governorate.^[6] In Amman, according to the water distribution plan of Miyahuna, 8 out of 44 main distribution zones received continuous water supply "except in emergency cases" in 2012. Most other distribution zones were scheduled to receive water for either once a week for 24 hours or twice a week for a total of 36–48 hours.^[16] To what extent actual supply follows the distribution program, especially during summer, is not clear. Since the Disi-Amman Conveyor became operational in summer 2013 the continuity of supply in Amman has increased.

Wadi Musa and the neighboring villages of Taiba, B'Doul and Beida were among the few localities in the Highlands that briefly enjoyed continuous water supply after a new well field had been built and the distribution network had been rehabilitated in 2001.^[17] However, only a few years later, water supply became intermittent again. Aqaba has always enjoyed continuous water supply thanks to abundant gravity-fed water supply from the fossil Disi aquifer in the Highlands above the coastal city.

Drinking water quality

Drinking water quality in Jordan is governed by Jordanian Standard 286 of 2008,^[18] which is based on the World Health Organization drinking water guidelines. Jordan's standards were modified in 2008 and previously in 2001, after a major drinking water pollution outbreak occurred in Amman in the summer of 1998 due to a malfunction of the capital's major drinking water treatment plant. In 2001, specific measures to be undertaken in case of the occurrence of pollution in drinking water samples were included in the procedures that are part of the standard. A 2005 study of different potable water sources in four governorates showed that drinking water quality was in compliance with national physiochemical standards.^[19] For the purpose of monitoring groundwater quality, a network of observation wells is installed in each of the “groundwater basins”.^[20] At the household level water is stored in water tanks (usually on top of the buildings) to be used until the next turn of water supply. In a 2011 study by the Jordanian Government, more than 90% of samples taken at house water storage tanks in three Amman distribution zones (Rasheed, Kharabsheh and Khalda) had chlorine residual levels between 0.2 mg/l and 0.5 mg/l.^[21] These values are in compliance with the recommendations of the WHO Drinking Water Guidelines.^[22] According to the WHO, the water can thus be classified as "safe to drink".^[23] Despite these results, a 2012 Jordan Times article reported that “[a] customer satisfaction survey carried out by the Jordan Water Company (Miyahuna) showed that customers avoid drinking tap water, fearing it is contaminated”.^[24]

Wastewater treatment

Jordan's first wastewater treatment plant was established in 1968 in Ain Ghazal near Amman (the plant now serves as a pre-treatment plant for the As-Samra plant). The construction of other treatment plants started in the early 1980s. The total number of treatment plants was 28 as of 2013, treating about 324,000 m³ per day (118 million m³/year), or about 98% of the collected wastewater. By far the largest treatment plant is the As-Samra plant that treats the wastewater of Amman-Zarqa, accounting for about 80% of all wastewater treated. The plant initially used the stabilization pond technology, but was rebuilt using the activated sludge technology in 2008 under a Build-Operate-Transfer contract signed in 2002. In June 2012 the government signed a contract for the expansion of the treatment plant to a capacity of 365,000 m³.^[25] Water is reused mainly for irrigation in the Jordan Valley, with some reuse for irrigation in the Highlands and limited industrial reuse in Aqaba.

Accessibility of information

The 2015 Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation encouraged the Ministry of Water and Irrigation and Water Authorities to make more information accessible by creating a system of public information through various media channels, including online. These should include information relating to water and sanitation, such as the results of water sampling. Thus strengthening the human right of access to information. According to the report these measures are also crucial for gaining public confidence in water quality, the reliability of services and encourage people to accept tariff reform.^[27]

Water use and environmental awareness

Given the high water scarcity in Jordan, the average per capita use is lower than in most other countries. Water production before network losses is about 120 liters per person and day while actual consumption is close to 80 liters per capita and day.^[2] A survey of water consumption habits by households in Eastern Amman and in 14 villages in the Northern Governorates showed that total consumption per capita lies between 60 and 80 liters per day. About 20-30% of this water is obtained from sources other than the public piped system, including from bottled water, water bought from tankers, rainwater harvesting and springs. In rural areas, 28% of households surveyed harvested rainwater and stored it in cisterns for drinking, since they considered it to be of better quality than piped water. In Eastern Amman, 12% of households bought water in large bottles and 30% bought water from private tankers. Most households have roof storage tanks with a volume of 1–2 m³.^[28] According to the 2009 Population and Family Health Survey, 31% of households use bottled water, 7% use rainwater, 2% tanker water and 60% tap water as their primary source of drinking water. According to the same survey, 22% of households filter tap water and the majority does not apply any type of treatment.^[29] A 2007–08 survey by the German-Jordanian water programme in the middle governorates Zarqa, Balqa and Madaba showed that 79% of households use tap water as their main source of drinking water and that 37% of households treat water before drinking it. Treated water bought in 5-gallon canisters and private water vendors that supply water in trucks are the main source of drinking water for 15% of households.^[30]^[31]

The government as well as different NGOs have been making efforts to increase public awareness of water scarcity and to encourage water conservation. One example is the Water Wise Women Initiative carried out since 2007 in initially five local communities throughout Jordan. The initiative builds on the efforts of volunteers organized in 50 community development centers by supported by the Jordanian Hashemite Fund for Human Development (JOHUD).^[32] It trains female volunteers called "change pioneers" in topics such as water saving, rainwater harvesting, water storage, plumbing, hygiene and water use for house gardening. It thus provides opportunities for women to generate income and to reduce expenses for bottled water, water bought from trucks and hired plumbers.^[33] In addition, the initiative reaches out to school girls^[34] and children, e.g. via a cartoon addressing water issues.^[35]

Water balance

Jordan is considered as one of the four most water scarce countries in the World.^[36] The limited water resources are exposed to pollution. Population growth is expected to increase the pressure on available water resources.

The National Water Strategy defines “water deficit” as “water demand” minus “water resources”. “Water demand” is not used in an economic sense where demand depends on price. Instead demand is defined as water needs derived from policy objectives. Thus the figure given in the strategy for water demand in agriculture - 1,080 million m³ (MCM)/year - is far greater than actual water use of about 600 MCM/year. In 2007, agriculture accounted for 72% of “water demand”, while the municipal share was 24% and the shares of tourism and industries were 3% and 1%, respectively.^[36] The water deficit of 565 million m³ (MCM)/year for 2007 thus is mainly caused by assumptions about “water needs” in agriculture.

The Strategy projects that municipal and industrial water needs will increase by 276 MCM/year from 2007 to 2022 (+ 29%), while agricultural water needs will stagnate. The Strategy envisages increasing water supply through three measures:

These measures would provide more water than what is needed to cover the projected increase in municipal and industrial water demand. The remaining amount could be used to cover “water needs” in agriculture, to reduce groundwater overuse or to restore freshwater aquatic ecosystems.

Water resources

Jordan's water resources include conventional as well as non-conventional resources, the latter e.g. comprising water reuse and desalination.

Conventional Water Resources

Conventional water resources in Jordan consist of groundwater and surface water. Countrywide, twelve groundwater basins have been identified. In terms of sustainability, their state can be described as critical since some of them are exploited to their maximum capacity, while others are overexploited, threatening their future use. The long term safe yield of renewable groundwater has been estimated at 275 million cubic metres/year. The major surface water sources are the Jordan River, the Yarmouk River and the Zarqa River.

Much of the flow of the Jordan River is diverted by Israel and much of the flow of the Yarmouk River by Syria, leaving only a small share to Jordan. Syria and Jordan have signed a bilateral treaty over the sharing of the Yarmouk River in 1987 in preparation for the construction of the Al-Wehda Dam on the border between the two countries. An Annex to the Israel–Jordan Treaty of Peace of 1994 specifies the allocation of the Jordan River and the lower Yarmouk River water between the two countries. As part of this treaty, Israel supplies Jordan with 20 million cubic metres per year during the summer from the Sea of Galilee in exchange for the same amount that Israel pumps from the Yarmouk River in the winter for storage in the Sea of Galilee.^[37] The treaty also specifies the supply of 10 million m³ of desalinated brackish water from Israel to Jordan and the supply of an additional 50 million cubic metres per year of drinkable water for Jordan from an unspecified source.^[38] This water could come from the Sea of Galilee or brackish water springs.

The Zarqa River is severely polluted by industry, municipal wastewater and non-point sources. The King Talal Dam, Jordan's largest surface water reservoir, faces low water levels and pollution. However, water quality in the King Talal reservoir has improved as a result of the construction of the new As-Samra wastewater treatment plant. The National Water Strategy estimates total renewable freshwater resources at 575 million cubic metres/year plus 90 million cubic metres/year of treated wastewater, totaling 665 million cubic metres/year.

Water reuse

Water reuse is an increasingly important element in Jordan's water balance. Reuse of treated wastewater ( also called "reclaimed water") occurs both indirectly, after discharge of the effluent to a river and mixing with freshwater, and directly, e.g. without mixing with freshwater.

Standards. The Jordanian standard JS893:2006 restricts the direct re-use of treated domestic wastewater to crops that are not eaten raw.^[40] It sets different standards for various reuse categories such as cooked vegetables, parks & landscaping/roads in towns (Class A), fruit trees, sides of

roads and green areas (Class B) and fodder & industrial crop & forest trees (Class C).^[41] Industrial Wastewater Standard Specification No 202/2007 complements the above standards, also distinguishing between different reuse categories.^[42]

Furthermore, a Reuse Coordination Committee has been established.^[60] A crop monitoring program confirmed that use of treated wastewater in Jordan meets the health-based target recommended by the WHO guidelines for the safe use of treated wastewater.^[39]

Planned reuse of reclaimed water from Greater Irbid in the Jordan Valley. A major water reuse project is being planned to reuse water from three wastewater treatment plants in the area of Irbid in the North of Jordan through a project supported in the framework of Jordanian-German cooperation. As of 2006, only 14% of the wastewater from these plants was being reused. An explanation for this is that farmers in the Jordan Valley are reluctant to use the reclaimed water, which they perceive to be of poor quality, for irrigation. The wastewater thus flows into the Jordan River, unused. In the future, the treated effluent from the three plants will flow through a pipe into the Jordan Valley, generating hydropower from the elevation differential of more than 1,000m. It will then be mixed with freshwater and delivered to the farmers in a quality that is acceptable to them.

Desalination

Desalination, which includes both desalination of sea water and desalination of brackish water, is another important non-conventional water resource for Jordan. The key project for sea water desalination is the Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal project which is yet to be completed. The most important plant for desalination of brackish water is the Ma'in-Mujib system which supplies water to Amman.

Impact of climate change on the water balance

In 2009 a government report noted that "Jordan’s remarkable development achievements are

under threat due to the crippling water scarcity, which is expected to be aggravated by climate change."^[44] Rainfall is expected to decline significantly and evaporation and transpiration of plants will increase due to increased temperatures.

Infrastructure

Jordan's water resources are located far away from its population centers, in particular the Greater Amman area where about half the country's population lives and which lies at about 1,000 meter above sea level. To address this challenge, Jordan has developed an extensive water supply infrastructure to provide water for both irrigation and municipal uses.

Existing infrastructure

The following systems provide drinking water for the Amman-Zarqa metropolitan area:

Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal

The proposed Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal is a multibillion-dollar plan to build a canal from the Red Sea to the slowly evaporating Dead Sea. The project also incorporates the construction of a desalination plant. It is expected to provide Jordan with 500 million cubic metres of water annually. In August 2008, the Jordanian Minister of Water and Irrigation Raed Abu Soud denoted the project as "the solution to our water problems."^[45]

Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

Legal framework

Water and sanitation are regulated mainly by the Water Authority of Jordan Law No. 18 of 1988 and its amendments, Jordan Valley Authority Law No. 30 of 2001 and Ministry of Water Law and Irrigation Law No. 54 of 1992 and its amendments. Other relevant laws include Public Health Law No. 47 of 2008, Environmental Protection Law No. 85 of 2006 and Groundwater By-Law No. 85 of 2002. Jordan does not yet have a comprehensive water law, although a draft law is being discussed. The bill is supposed to define the structure and functions of the different ministries and other institutions managing the water and sanitation sectors. The UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe water drinking water and sanitation stated in a 2014 report: "[a]dopting a comprehensive water law, is an important first step for the realization of the human right to water and to sanitation."^[48]

Policy and regulation

The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) is the official apex body responsible for the formulation of national water strategies, policies and planning, subject to approval by the Council of Ministers. The MWI has been established in 1988 through a bylaw. The establishment of the MWI was in response to Jordan's recognition for the need of a more integrated approach to national water management. Since its establishment, MWI has been supported by several donor organizations that have assisted in the development of water policy and water master planning as well as in restructuring the water sector. Two key agencies in the water sector are under the authority of the Ministry: The first of them is the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) which is mainly in charge of water and sanitation service provision. It provides its services directly or through public companies that it owns (see below). Moreover, WAJ is also responsible, together with the Ministry, for water resources planning and monitoring. It also regulates water abstraction by all users, including itself, by issuing licenses. WAJ thus combines both regulatory and service provision functions.

The second institution directly subordinate to the MWI is the Performance Monitoring Unit (PMU), previously called Programme Management Unit. It is in charge of projects with private sector participation. It has also carried out major investment projects such as the water loss reduction program in Amman and has regulated the private operator in Amman from 1999 to 2006. The PMU was supposed to be an embryonic unit for a future semi-autonomous water regulatory agency for the entire country, to be established by law outside of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation. As a step in that direction, a Water Sector Audit Unit (WSAU) was established in the PMU in May 2008. The unit has set up a benchmarking system using performance indicators that have initially been applied to the Aqaba Water Company and Miyahuna.^[49] Due to the absence of a regulatory agency, tariff setting is the responsibility of the Cabinet, after proposal from the Ministry of Water and Irrigation.^[9]

Service providers

WAJ is responsible for planning, construction, operation and maintenance of the public water supply and sewer services either directly or indirectly through its subsidiaries. It has been established as an autonomous corporate body, with financial and administrative independence linked with the Minister of Water and Irrigation.

One of WAJ's subsidiaries is the Aqaba Water Company (AWC), a public company established in August 2004 as Jordan's first semi-autonomous water utility. It is owned by WAJ (85%) and the Aqaba Special Economic Zone (ASEZA; 15%) whose establishment triggered the establishment of AWC. A second public water company, the Jordan Water Company (Miyahuna), was set up in 2006 for the Governorate of Amman. The company, which was created to take over service responsibility from a private operator, is a 100% subsidiary of WAJ. A third public company, the Yarmouk Water Company (YWC), has been be set up in 2010, serving the four Northern Governorates of Jordan, namely Irbid, Jerash, Ajloun and Mafraq. YWC is also a 100% subsidiary of WAJ and replaces the Northern Governorates Water Administration (NGWA). In 2013 Miyahuna was given the responsibility for water supply and sanitation in Madaba Governorate and in January 2014 in Zarqa Governorate under public-public management contracts, while the employees in these two governorates remain employees of WAJ.

Private participation

Amman management contract. In 1999, a public-private partnership (PPP) started with the signing of a Management Contract between WAJ and the private joint venture Lyonnaise des Eaux - Montgomery Watson - Arabtech Jardaneh (LEMA), led by the French company Lyonnaise des Eaux, now known as Suez Environnement. According to the contract, LEMA was responsible for operating and managing water and wastewater services in the Greater Amman area on behalf of WAJ. The original five-year contract which began in August 1999 was extended until December 2006. The contract was intended to strengthen the technical structure and management capability as well as to develop the skills and knowledge of the staff. To this end, a small team of experienced expatriates worked with, and trained, around 1250 local staff. LEMA received treated water from number of WAJ sources. It also collected wastewater and transported it to treatment plants. The company was able to comply with 12 out of 15 performance targets. In the service area, i.e. in the Amman Governorate, access to supply increased from 90% in 2000 to universal access in 2005. At the same time, sewer connections increased from 69% to 80%.

In 2007, the Jordan Water Company Miyahuna replaced LEMA after its contract had been extended one final time for an extra six months.^[80]

As-Samra Build-Operate-Transfer. The wastewater treatment plant As-Samra, the largest such plant in Greater Amman, is being operated by a consortium led by SUEZ under a 25-year Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) contract with WAJ.

Non-governmental organizations

More than 15 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) work directly or indirectly on water issues in Jordan, including the Jordan Environment Society^[53] (JES) and the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature. NGOs carry out awareness projects and provide support to community projects together with national and international partners. NGOs are particularly engaged in water harvesting and water reuse. The Royal Scientific Society, through its Environmental Research Center, undertakes applied research including water quality assessments and wastewater management.^[54]

Community-based solutions

In addition to large-scale solutions there are also several community-based approaches aiming at a more sustainable use of Jordan's water resources. An important fosterer of these small-scale community-based approaches is the “Community Based Initiatives for Water Demand Management Project” (CBIWD), a project organised by the Ministry of Water and Irrigation in cooperation with Mercy Corps, the Jordan River Foundation and the Royal Scientific Society which is supported by USAID.^[55]^[56] The CBIWD supports a variety of project types, among them e.g. rainwater harvesting and greywater reuse projects.^[55]

The rainwater harvesting projects are mostly located in Jordan's North since rainfall is higher in this region than in the rest of the country. The communities, who are often not connected to the piped network, use harvested rainwater instead of or complementary to piped freshwater.

Concerning the reuse of greywater, Jordan's Ministry of Water promotes this alternative source especially in the agricultural sector, but also in hotels, government premises and on the individual household level.^[55] The most important motivation for using greywater - next to saving freshwater - is to cut down water bills.

Efficiency

The share of non-revenue water (NRW) - water which is produced but not billed - was estimated at approx. 50% nationwide in 2014. This amounts to an estimated physical leakage of 76 billion litres per year, which could meet the needs of 2.6 million people (more than a third of the population.^[57] The main reasons leading to this high rate are leakage, by-passing of meters, illegal connections, unreliable water meters and problems concerning the reading of those meters. Leakages also affect water pressure and quality. Stolen water is used for irrigation or sold through water tankers, which reduces the amount available for official water supply and increases the price. Measures to decrease the rate of NRW can thus contribute to relieve the high pressure on water resources. The Government, in its National Water Strategy, aims at reducing non-revenue water to 25% by 2022, and technical losses to below 15%. The Strategy thus also includes strengthening the criminalization of water theft and illegal wells.^[58]

Under a nationwide campaign to end water theft and violations on water networks and resources, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, water companies and security authorities sealed 26 illegal wells in January 2015, seized and confiscated 30 drilling rigs, as well as dismantled 408 illegal fixtures on water mains and pipes across the Kingdom. According to WAJ, hundreds of thousands of stolen and wasted cubic metres of water have been saved since a “serious crackdown” on water theft and violations was initiated in August 2013.^[59]

In Amman, the level of non-revenue water has been reduced from an estimated 46% in 2005 to an estimated 34% in 2010. However, during the same period the average hours of service per week declined from 66 to 36.^[60]

The UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation called in a 2014 report on donors to prioritize their cooperation in tackling non-revenue water through small scale, effective interventions.^[61]

Financial aspects

Cost recovery

Water and sewer services in Jordan are heavily subsidized. The revenue covers only part of the operation and maintenance costs, especially after the near-doubling of electricity tariffs in 2011 since 14% of electricity in Jordan is used to pump drinking water and to treat wastewater. Subsidies to the water sector amount to more than 0.4% of GDP.^[9]

Tariff structure and level

Water and sewer tariffs in Jordan are differentiated by geographic area, type of use and volume of use. In areas served by public companies - the governorates of Amman, Aqaba, Irbid, Jerash, Ajloun and Mafraq - tariffs are higher than in the rest of the country where services are provided by WAJ. Residential water and sewer tariffs use an increasing-block system, under which users pay a higher tariff per m³ if they consume more water. The first block, corresponding to a consumption of 18m³ per quarter, is a minimum charge independent of the amount of water consumed. Water and sewer tariffs for non-residential use (commercial and industrial users) are about ten to twenty times higher respectively than residential water and sewer tariffs in the lowest consumption block.

In areas served by public companies, as of 2015, the residential minimum charge was JD5.22/quarter for water and sewerage. This corresponds to an average water tariff of JD0.14/m³ and a sewer tariff of JD0.04/m³ for 18m³ per quarter. For a consumption level of 36m³ per quarter the average water and sewer tariff was JD0.24/m³ and JD0.14/m³ respectively. The tariff for each next m³ increases until it reaches JD1.92/m³ and JD1.11/m³ respectively for water and sewerage at a consumption of more than 122 m³/quarter. Tariffs for non-residential customers were JD1.30/m³ and 0,87 m³ respectively above a consumption of 6 m³/quarter, independently of the level of consumption.^[3]^[6] There is also a sewerage tax that is set at 3% of the assessed property value, which is charged in addition to the sewer tariff. Despite rising property values the sewerage tax revenue has remained constant for many years at JD15m per year, representing less than 10% of water revenues.^[62]

Tariff adjustments

Any adjustment of water tariffs requires Cabinet approval. In September 2009, King Abdullah stated that water tariffs would not be increased.^[63] In June 2010 the government announced the first tariff increase since 1997, emphasizing that low-volume consumers would not be affected because the tariff in the first block remained unchanged.^[64] The tariff increase, said to amount to only 9% for volumes beyond the first block, would become effective in January 2011. At the same time, the billing cycle was changed from every three months to monthly. Furthermore, tariffs in five governorates were silently substantially increased to the same level as in Amman. In February 2012 the Cabinet decided to return to the quarterly billing cycle and to further increase tariffs in the higher blocks of consumption.^[65]

Affordability

Combined water and sewer bills amount, on average, to less than 0.5% of total household expenditures and are thus quite affordable.^[62] The intermittent supply leads many to rely on bottled or tanked water, which is about 8 to 10 times higher than piped water, so that total household expenditures are often much higher than the utility bill. Prices paid to water vendors are 4 to 8 JD per m³. In 2007 it was estimated that an average poor household with 6 members in the Middle Governorates spends 31-39 JD per year on its water and sewer bill at a consumption of 70 liter/capita/day, corresponding to only 0.4% of household expenditures. However, if other items are added the picture changes substantially: it costs 35 JD per year to depreciate the cost of a 2 m³ rooftop storage tank over 10 years; 160 JD per year to buy 2 liters/capita/day of bottled water at a price of 0.04 JD per liter (0.80 JD per canister of 5 gallons); and 153 JD per year to buy the equivalent of 28 liters/capita/day at a price of 2.50 JD/m³ from water vendors. This amounts to 374 JD per year and household, corresponding to 6.3% of expenditures. In addition, for households not connected to the sewer network the cost of emptying septic tanks at a cost between 21 and 40 JD per load needs to be added to calculate total water and sanitation expenditures. In conclusion, the cost of the water bill thus is only a fraction of total water expenditures, and household water expenditures could be lowered significantly if a sufficient quantity of good quality water was supplied on a reliable basis.^[30]

Investment

Jordan's Water Strategy 2009–2022 includes investments of Jordanian Dinar 5.86 billion (US$8.24 billion) over a period of 15 years, corresponding to more than 160% of Jordan's GDP.^[36] According to an earlier water sector investment plan for the time from 1998 to 2010 (published in 1997), the estimated costs for water projects were US$1,916 million, while sanitation projects were estimated at US$926 million, corresponding to about US$240 million per year.^[66] Actual investments towards the end of that period were only slightly below these expected figures: They stood at 900m JD in the six years from 2005 to 2010, averaging 150m JD (US$215) or 28 JD (US$40) per capita.^[62]

Financing

In the period 2005–10, public investments in water supply and sanitation were financed from the following sources:

WAJ local currency bonds had a maturity of only three years, are government-guaranteed and pay 4 to 7% interest. WAJ debt increased by 900% to JD 621 million in only five years.^[62] 73% of grants were provided by USAID. Since then, the share of loan financing in total financing has increased, including loans from Germany and France.

Additional financing not included in the figures above is obtained from private sources through Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) projects. There are two such projects in the water sector, one to finance the Samra wastewater treatment plant and the other and largest one to finance the Disi-Amman carrier. The latter is partially financed by about US$190 million of private equity from GAMA Energy, a joint venture between the Turkish firm GAMA Holding and the US firm General Electric Energy Financial Services. In addition, the government provided a grant of US$300 million and loans totaling US$475 million by the Overseas Private Investment Corporation of the United States, the European Investment Bank and Proparco of France.^[67]

External cooperation

The major external public donors in Jordan's water supply and sanitation are the United States, Japan, Germany and the European Union, primarily through the European Investment Bank (EIB). Other donors are the United Nations (UN), the World Bank, the Islamic Development Bank, the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, the Saudi Fund for Development, the Abu Dhabi Fund, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Italy, France, Norway, South Korea, The Netherlands, Canada, Spain, Sweden, China and Libya.^[6] The following paragraphs summarize the cooperation with some of Jordan's most active external partners in the water sector.

European Investment Bank

The European Investment Bank (EIB) approved two loans for the rehabilitation of the water supply network in Greater Amman in 1996 and 1998 for a total of 49 million Euro. WAJ has benefited from 8 EIB loans amounting to 61.5 million Euro between 1984 and 1998.^[68]

France

The French Development Agency AFD and its private investment arm PROPARCO support the Disi-Amman conveyor through two projects, each of US$100 million, approved in 2009.^[69]

Germany

Germany has been engaged in supporting the Jordanian water sector for several decades through three agencies: GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) in charge of technical cooperation, the development Bank KfW in charge of financial cooperation and the Federal Geological Agency BGR in charge of hydro-geological studies.

KfW. The German government-owned development Bank KfW has a series of water and sanitation projects in Jordan with a total commitment of Euro 245m in 2009. The currently largest project supports the extension of sewer networks and the construction of a wastewater treatment plant in Irbid through a Euro 62.95m loan approved in 2000. The treated wastewater is to be reused for irrigated agriculture.^[71] Other projects approved around 2000 include a Water Loss Reduction project for Irbid and Jerash (EUR 18.2 m loan), a Water Loss Reduction project for the Northern Governorates (EUR 21.7 m loan and EUR 3.5 m grant), a Water Loss Reduction project in Karak (EUR 16.2 m loan and EUR 2.24 m grant) and a sanitation project in Karak and Kofranjah (EUR 15m loan and EUR 1.45m in grants). In 2006, KfW approved another series of loans, including for a third project supporting the reduction of distribution losses in Amman in partnership with other donors through an 11m Euro loan with the objective of saving 2.5 million m³ of water per year, enough to provide 70,000 beneficiaries with water.^[72] Other projects approved around 2006 include a project for water transmission in the Northern Governorates (EUR 15 m loan) and a project for water management in the Middle Governorates (EUR 5.3 m loan). In 2009, KfW modified its cooperation with Jordan from a project approach to a program approach, bundling its new funding in a single "Water Resources Management Program" (2009–2014) that covers water loss reduction, sanitation and the use of reclaimed water from Irbid for irrigation in the Northern Jordan Valley. The new program approach is expected to allow flexible responses to changing circumstances.

Past projects financed by KfW include a water supply project in Wadi Musa; an integrated poverty-oriented project targeted at refugees and squatters which included investments in water supply and sanitation; sewage disposal for Greater Irbid; and a trunk sewer and associated pumping stations linking up to the wastewater treatment plant As-Samra near Amman. In Wadi Musa the Euro 11.3 million project achieved, for a brief period, continuous water supply as well as a reduction in distribution losses. The project was co-financed by France and, concerning sanitation, by the US.^[17] The Euro 16.3 m poverty-oriented infrastructure project implemented by the Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) of Jordan increased access to water and sanitation in two squatter settlements and four refugee camps. The investments in the camps were chosen in close dialogue with the residents who were organized in Community Improvement Committees, and were carried out between 1999 and 2002.^[73] The project complemented the World Bank-financed Community Infrastructure Development Project.^[74] The Euro 60.1 m Greater Irbid sewage disposal project (1994–2002) included the construction of two wastewater treatment plants and the associated sewer infrastructure connecting 202,000 residents, as well as training for operational staff. Both treatment plants operated satisfactorily four years after they had been completed. Residual sludge is being properly disposed on a landfill.^[75]

Japan

Japanese aid is in the form of grants administered by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Japanese assistance is tied, meaning that consultants and contractors have to be from Japan. An important completed project supported by Japan was the doubling the capacity of Zai Water Treatment Plant on the carrier from Deirala in the Jordan Valley to Amman to 250 million liter/day, covering a population of 1.9 million people (US$79.1 million grant, 1998–2001).^[76]

United States of America

US assistance to the water and sanitation sector in Jordan is provided through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC).

World Bank

From 1999 to 2007, the World Bank contributed with US$55 million to the Amman Water and Sanitation Management Project. One objective of the project was to lay the groundwork for sustainable private participation in the sector through a management contract. According to the World Bank, although the management was not extended, "the management operator was able to comply substantially with 12 of 15 performance targets" and, in the seven and a half years of the project, "the practice of modern utility management was introduced, and the accountability of the operator was established".^[81]

See also

References

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