| 词条 | New Zealand kaka |
| 释义 |
| name = New Zealand kaka | image = Kaka-Parrots.jpg | image_caption = A pair of North Island kaka (N. m. septentrionalis) at Auckland Zoo, New Zealand | status = EN | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref =[1] | genus = Nestor | species = meridionalis | authority = (Gmelin, 1788) | range_map = Nestor meridionalis -range -New Zealand.png | range_map_caption = Range in green }} The New Zealand kaka (Maori: kākā) (Nestor meridionalis) is a large species of parrot of the family Nestoridae found in native forests of New Zealand. Two subspecies are recognised. It is endangered and has disappeared from much of its former range. Taxonomy and namingThe New Zealand kaka was described by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788. There are two subspecies, the North Island kaka, Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis, and the South Island kaka, N. m. meridionalis, although more recent research has ruled out allopatric subspeciation.[2] The Māori language name kākā means "parrot", possibly related to kā, 'to screech'.[3] The genus Nestor contains four species: the New Zealand kaka (Nestor meridionalis), the kea (N. notabilis), the extinct Norfolk kaka (N. productus), and the extinct Chatham kaka (N. chathamensis). All four are thought to stem from a "proto-kaka", dwelling in the forests of New Zealand five million years ago.[4][5] Their closest relative is the kakapo (Strigops habroptilus).[4][5][6][7] Together, they form the parrot family Strigopidae, an ancient group that split off from all other Psittacidae before their radiation.[4][5][7][8] DescriptionThe New Zealand kaka is a medium-sized parrot, measuring {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length and weighing from {{convert|390|to|560|g|oz|abbr=on}}, with an average of {{convert|452|g|lb|abbr=on}}.[9] It is closely related to the kea, but has darker plumage and is more arboreal. The forehead and crown are greyish white and the nape is greyish brown. The neck and abdomen are more reddish, while the wings are more brownish. Both sub-species have a strongly patterned brown/green/grey plumage with orange and scarlet flashes under the wings; color variants which show red to yellow coloration especially on the breast are sometimes found. This group of parrots is unusual, retaining more primitive features lost in most other parrots, because it split off from the rest around 100 million years ago.[10] The calls include a harsh ka-aa and a whistling u-wiia.[11] Distribution and habitatThe New Zealand kaka lives in lowland and mid-altitude native forest. Its strongholds are currently the offshore reserves of Kapiti Island, Codfish Island and Little Barrier Island. It is breeding rapidly in the mainland island sanctuary at Zealandia with over 800 birds banded since their reintroduction in 2002.[12] From their reintroduction in 2002 the North Island kaka continue to re-colonise Wellington and a recent report shows a significant increase in their numbers over the last 12 years.[13] BehaviourKaka are mainly arboreal and occupy mid-to-high canopy. Often seen flying across valleys or calling from the top of emergent trees. They are very gregarious and move in large flocks often containing kea where present. DietThe New Zealand kaka eats fruits, berries, seeds, flowers, buds, nectar, sap, plants and invertebrates. It uses its strong beak to shred the cones of the kauri tree to obtain the seeds.[14] It has a brush tongue with which it feeds on nectar, and it uses its strong beak to dig out the grubs of the huhu beetle and to remove bark to feed on sap.[15] NestingNew Zealand kaka make their nests in hollow trees, laying clutches of 2 to 4 eggs in late winter. Both parents assist in feeding the chicks. In a good fruiting year pairs can double clutch often utilizing the same nest hole for the second clutch. It is unusual for a pair to raise more than three chicks in a clutch. Conservation statusThe New Zealand kaka is considered endangered (CITES II). It has greatly declined across its traditional range as a result of habitat loss, predation by introduced predators like rats, possums and stoats, and competition from wasps and bees for the honeydew excreted by scale insects. A closely related species, Nestor productus, the Norfolk kaka, became extinct in 1851 for similar reasons. PredationPredatory mammals are responsible for the loss of an estimated 26 million native birds and their eggs each year in New Zealand.[16] As cavity nesters with a long incubation period that requires the mother to stay on the nest for at least 90 days, kaka are particularly vulnerable to predation. Stoats were the main cause of death of nesting adult females, nestlings and fledglings, but possums were also important predators of adult females, eggs and nestlings.[17] There is strong evidence that predation of chicks and females has led to a serious age and sex imbalance, even amongst ostensibly healthy populations.[18] In parts of the country, the Department of Conservation and local conservation groups have attempted to control predators of kaka through the use of traps, ground baiting and the aerial deployment of sodium fluoroacetate (1080). Where pest control has been carried out, there has been significant recovery of kaka populations. For example, in Pureora Forest Park 20 kaka were radio-tracked in an area to be treated with aerial 1080 in 2001. In nearby Waimanoa Forest, which was not to be treated with 1080, nine kaka were radio-tracked. In the area where 1080 was used, all 20 birds survived that season. Of the nine birds tagged in the untreated area, five were killed by predators that same season.[19] CompetitionResearch has shown that honeydew is very important for breeding birds, especially those breeding in southern beech forests. The difficult nature of controlling the wasps makes the New Zealand kaka's future very uncertain. Human interactionThe increase in the population of North Island kaka in Wellington has led to birds visiting residential gardens and reserves and this in turn has led to more interactions with people.[20][21] People have been feeding the birds unsuitable food such as nuts, various grains and cheese.[20] Feeding kaka has resulted in metabolic bone disease in kaka chicks.[20] In 2016 80% of the kaka chicks being monitored by the Wellington City Council died from this disease.[22] There have also been instances of kaka nesting in the roofs of houses.[23] ==References== 1. ^{{IUCN|id=22684840 |title=Nestor meridionalis |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2013 |accessdate=26 November 2013}} 2. ^{{Cite journal|last=Dussex|first=Nic|last2=Sainsbury|first2=James|last3=Moorhouse|first3=Ron|last4=Jamieson|first4=Ian G.|last5=Robertson|first5=Bruce C.|date=2015-01-01|title=Evidence for Bergmann's Rule and Not Allopatric Subspeciation in the Threatened Kaka (Nestor meridionalis)|url=https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/106/6/679/2622879|journal=Journal of Heredity|language=en|volume=106|issue=6|pages=679–691|doi=10.1093/jhered/esv079|issn=0022-1503|via=}} 3. ^{{cite web | title=Entry for kā on yourdictionary.com | url=http://www.yourdictionary.com/kaka}} 4. ^1 2 {{cite journal|title=A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during the Cretaceous|journal=Mol Biol Evol|year=2008|first=T.F. |last=Wright |author2=Schirtzinger E. E. |author3=Matsumoto T. |author4=Eberhard J. R. |author5=Graves G. R. |author6=Sanchez J. J. |author7=Capelli S. |author8=Muller H. |author9=Scharpegge J. |author10=Chambers G. K. |author11=Fleischer R. C.|volume=25|issue=10|pages=2141–2156|doi= 10.1093/molbev/msn160|url=|accessdate=|pmid=18653733|pmc=2727385 }} 5. ^1 2 {{cite journal|last=Grant-Mackie|first=E.J. |author2=J.A. Grant-Mackie |author3=W.M. Boon |author4=G.K. Chambers|year=2003|title=Evolution of New Zealand Parrots|journal=NZ Science Teacher|volume=103}} 6. ^Juniper, T., Parr, M. (1998) Parrots: A guide to parrots of the world. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press ({{ISBN|0-300-07453-0}}) 7. ^1 {{cite journal |title=The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: sequence analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the Psittaciformes |journal=Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=706–21 |date=September 2005 |pmid=16099384 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013 |url= |last1=De Kloet |first1=Rolf S. |last2=De Kloet |first2=Siwo R.}} 8. ^{{cite journal|title=The evolutionary diversification of parrots supports a taxon pulse model with multiple trans-oceanic dispersal events and local radiations|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|year=2009|first=M. |last=Schweizer |author2=Seehausen O |author3=Güntert M |author4=Hertwig ST|volume=54|doi= 10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.021|url=|accessdate=|pmid=19699808|issue=3|pages=984–94 }} 9. ^CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), {{ISBN|978-0-8493-4258-5}}. 10. ^{{cite web|url=http://click4biology.info/c4b/5/eco5.4.htm |title=Click4Biology |publisher=Click4biology.info |accessdate=27 December 2012}} 11. ^Falla RA, Sibson RB & Turbot EG (1966) A Field guide to the birds of New Zealand. Collins, London ({{ISBN|0-00-212022-4}}) 12. ^{{cite web|title=800th kaka Banded at ZEALANDIA|url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/SC1701/S00013/800th-kaka-banded-at-zealandia.htm|accessdate=9 November 2015}} 13. ^{{cite book|last1=McArthur|first1=Nikki|last2=Harvey|first2=Annette|last3=Flux|first3=Ian|title=State and trends in the diversity, abundance and distribution of birds in Wellington City.|date=October 2015|publisher=Greater Wellington Regional Council|location=Wellington|url=http://www.gw.govt.nz/assets/Our-Environment/Environmental-monitoring/Environmental-Reporting/Wellington-City-bird-monitoring-report-2015.pdf|accessdate=18 January 2016}} 14. ^{{cite web |title=Agathis australis, Kauri |work=Bushmans Friend |url=http://www.bushmansfriend.co.nz/content.asp?PageID=17761&orgfn=content|accessdate=27 August 2007 }} 15. ^{{cite journal |last=Charles |first=K. E. |year=2012 |title=Tree damage in Wellington as a result of foraging for sap and bark-dwelling invertebrates by the North Island Kaka (Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis) |journal=Notornis |volume=59 |pages=180–184 |url=https://www.notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Charles%202012.pdf}} 16. ^{{cite web |title=Landcare Research scientist John Innes talks about the extent of predation by introduced mammalian predators |format=video interview | accessdate= 11 August 2011 | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DGof7hotXco }} 17. ^{{cite journal |title=Effect of controlling introduced predators on Kaka (Nestor meridionalis) in the Rotoiti Nature Recovery Project | first=G. |last=Taylor |display-authors=etal |year=2009 | url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/conservation/native-animals/birds/kaka-in-rnrp-web.pdf}} 18. ^{{cite journal |title=Sex ratio of North Island Kaka (Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis), Waihaha Ecological Area, Pureora Forest Park |first1=Terry C. |last1=Greene |first2=James R. |last2=Fraser |journal=New Zealand Journal of Ecology |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=1998 |pages=11–16 |jstor=24054543 |url=https://newzealandecology.org/nzje/2031.pdf}} 19. ^{{cite web | title= The use of 1080 for pest control – Outcomes for bird populations | url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/pests-and-threats/animal-pests/methods-of-control/1080-poison-for-pest-control/the-use-of-1080-for-pest-control/5-outcomes-of-1080-use/5_1-outcomes-for-bird-populations/ | publisher= Department of Conservation | accessdate= 11 August 2011}} 20. ^1 2 {{Cite journal|last=Hunter|first=S.A.|last2=Alley|first2=M.R.|last3=Lenting|first3=B.M.|date=2017|title=Metabolic Bone Disease in North Island Kaka, Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis, in Wellington|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319345072_Metabolic_Bone_Disease_in_North_Island_Kaka_Nestor_meridionalis_septentrionalis_in_Wellington|journal=Kokako|volume=24|issue=1|pages=23–25|via=Researchgate}} 21. ^{{Cite web|url=https://web.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-project-022713-205310/unrestricted/Kaka_Final_Draft.pdf|title=Evaluating the Interactions between Wellington Residents and the Threatened Kaka Parrot.|last=Cote|first=Sarah|last2=Durand|first2=Olivia Durand|date=February 27, 2013|website=web.wpi.edu|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=23 January 2019|last3=LaRoche|first3=Erin|last4=Warden|first4=Rachel}} 22. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/20/killing-kakas-with-kindness-new-zealand-bird-lovers-threaten-future-of-parrot|title=Killing kakas with kindness: New Zealand bird lovers threaten future of parrot|last=Roy|first=Eleanor Ainge|date=20 January 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 January 2019}} 23. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/AK1810/S00149/kaka-intruders-on-the-increase.htm|title=Kākā intruders on the increase|last=|first=|date=October 8, 2018|work=Scoop.co.nz|access-date=25 January 2019}} Further reading
External links{{Commons|Nestor meridionalis}}
3 : Nestor (genus)|Birds of New Zealand|Birds described in 1788 |
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