| 词条 | Nicotinamide |
| 释义 |
| drug_name = | INN = | type = | IUPAC_name = pyridine-3-carboxamide | image = Nicotinamid.svg | width = | alt = | image2 = Nicotinamide-from-xtal-2011-Mercury-3D-sf.png | width2 = | alt2 = | imageL = | widthL = | altL = | imageR = | widthR = | altR = | caption = | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˌ|n|ɪ|k|ə|ˈ|t|ɪ|n|ə|m|aɪ|d}} | tradename = | Drugs.com = {{Drugs.com|cdi|niacinamide}} | MedlinePlus = | licence_EU = | licence_US = | DailyMedID = | pregnancy_AU = | pregnancy_AU_comment = | pregnancy_US =C | pregnancy_US_comment = [1] | pregnancy_category= | dependency_liability = | addiction_liability = | routes_of_administration = by mouth, topical | legal_AU = | legal_AU_comment = | legal_CA = | legal_CA_comment = | legal_DE = | legal_DE_comment = | legal_NZ = | legal_NZ_comment = | legal_UK = | legal_UK_comment = | legal_US = OTC | legal_US_comment = | legal_UN = | legal_UN_comment = | legal_status = | bioavailability = | protein_bound = | metabolism = | metabolites = | onset = | elimination_half-life = | duration_of_action = | excretion = | CAS_number = 98-92-0 | CAS_supplemental = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | class = | ATCvet = | ATC_prefix = A11 | ATC_suffix = HA01 | ATC_supplemental = | PubChem = 936 | PubChemSubstance = | IUPHAR_ligand = | DrugBank = DB02701 | ChemSpiderID = 911 | UNII = 25X51I8RD4 | KEGG = D00036 | ChEBI = 17154 | ChEMBL = 1140 | NIAID_ChemDB = | synonyms = 3-pyridinecarboxamide niacinamide nicotinic acid amide vitamin PP nicotinic amide vitamin B3 | chemical_formula = | C = 6 | H = 6 | N = 2 | O = 1 | charge= | molecular_weight = | SMILES = c1cc(cnc1)C(=O)N | Jmol = | StdInChI = 1S/C6H6N2O/c7-6(9)5-2-1-3-8-4-5/h1-4H,(H2,7,9) | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = DFPAKSUCGFBDDF-UHFFFAOYSA-N | density = 1.40 g/cm3[1] | density_notes = | melting_point = 129.5 | melting_high = | melting_notes = | boiling_point = 334 | boiling_notes = | solubility = | specific_rotation = }}Nicotinamide (NAM), also known as niacinamide, is a form of vitamin B3 found in food and used as a dietary supplement and medication.[2][4][3] As a supplement, it is used by mouth to prevent and treat pellagra (niacin deficiency).[4] While nicotinic acid (niacin) may be used for this purpose, nicotinamide has the benefit of not causing skin flushing.[4] As a cream, it is used to treat acne.[3] Side effects are minimal.[9][5] At high doses liver problems may occur.[9] Normal amounts are safe for use during pregnancy.[6] Nicotinamide is in the vitamin B family of medications, specifically the vitamin B3 complex.[7][8] It is an amide of nicotinic acid.[9] Foods that contain nicotinamide include yeast, meat, milk, and green vegetables.[10] Nicotinamide was discovered between 1935 and 1937.[11][18] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system.[12] Nicotinamide is available as a generic medication and over the counter.[7] In the United Kingdom a 60 g tube costs the NHS about £7.10.[3] Commercially nicotinamide is made from either nicotinic acid or 3-cyanopyridine.[18][23] In a number of countries grains have nicotinamide added to them.[13] Medical usesNiacin deficiencyNicotinamide is the preferred treatment for niacin deficiency (pellagra).[4] A patient's diagnosis of pellagra is based on their history, as well as a presence of dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia.[14] While nicotinic acid (niacin) may be used, nicotinamide has the benefit of not causing skin flushing.[4] AcneNicotinamide in the form of a cream is used as a treatment for acne.[3] It has anti-inflammatory actions. These may be of benefit to people with inflammatory skin conditions.[15] Nicotinamide increases the biosynthesis of ceramides in human keratinocytes in vitro and improves the epidermal permeability barrier in vivo.[16] The application of 2% topical nicotinamide for 2 and 4 weeks has been found to be effective in lowering the sebum excretion rate in study participants.[17] Nicotinamide has been shown to prevent Propionibacterium acnes-induced activation of toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, which ultimately results in the down-regulation of pro-inflammatory IL-8 production.[18] Skin cancerNicotinamide decreases the risk of skin cancers, other than melanoma, in those at high risk.[19] Side effectsSide effects are minimal.[9][5] At high doses liver problems may occur.[9] Normal amounts are safe for use during pregnancy.[6] ChemistryThe structure of nicotinamide consists of a pyridine ring to which a primary amide group is attached in the meta position. It is an amide of nicotinic acid.[9] As an aromatic compound, it undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions and transformations of its two functional groups. Examples of these reactions reported in Organic Syntheses include the preparation of 2-chloronicotinonitrile by a two-step process via the N-oxide,[20][21] from nicotinonitrile by reaction with phosphorus pentoxide,[22] and from 3-aminopyridine by reaction with a solution of sodium hypobromite, prepared in situ from bromine and sodium hydroxide.[23] Biological importanceNicotinamide occurs as a component of a variety of biological systems, including within the vitamin B family and specifically the vitamin B3 complex.[7][8] It is also a critically important part of the structures of NADH and NAD+, where the N-substituted aromatic ring in the oxidised NAD+ form undergoes reduction with hydride attack to form NADH.[45] The NADPH/NADP+ structures have the same ring, and are involved in similar biochemical reactions. Industrial productionThe hydrolysis of 3-cyanopyridine (nicotinonitrile) is catalysed by the enzyme nitrile hydratase from Rhodococcus rhodochrous J1,[24][25][26] producing 3500 tons per annum of nicotinamide for use in animal feed.[27] The enzyme allows for a more selective synthesis as further hydrolysis of the amide to nicotinic acid is avoided.[28][29] Nicotinamide can also be made from nicotinic acid. According to Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, worldwide sales of nicotinamide were 31,000 tons in 2014.[13] BiochemistryNicotinamide, as a part of the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH / NAD+) is crucial to life. In cells, nicotinamide is incorporated into NAD+ and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+). NAD+ and NADP+ are coenzymes in a wide variety of enzymatic oxidation-reduction reactions the most notable being glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain.[30] If humans ingest nicotinamide, it will likely undergo a series of reactions that transform it into NAD, which can then undergo a transformation to form NADP+. This method of creation of NAD+ is called a salvage pathway. However, the human body can produce NAD+ from the amino acid tryptophan and niacin without our ingestion of nicotinamide.[31] NAD+ acts as an electron carrier that helps with the interconversion of energy between nutrients and the cell's energy currency, ATP. In oxidation-reduction reactions, the active part of the coenzyme is the nicotinamide. In NAD+, the nitrogen in the aromatic nicotinamide ring is covalently bonded to adenine dinucleotide. The formal charge on the nitrogen is stabilized by the shared electrons of the other carbon atoms in the aromatic ring. When a hydride atom is added onto NAD+ to form NADH, the molecule loses its aromaticity, and therefore a good amount of stability. This higher energy product later releases its energy with the release of a hydride, and in the case of the electron transport chain, it assists in forming adenosine triphosphate.[32] For every one mole of NADH that is oxidized, 158.2 kJ of energy will be released.[32] Food sourcesNicotinamide occurs in trace amounts mainly in meat, fish, nuts, and mushrooms, as well as to a lesser extent in some vegetables.[33] It is commonly added to cereals and other foods. Many multivitamins contain 20–30 mg of vitamin B3 and it is also available in higher doses.[34] Compendial status
ResearchA 2015 trial found nicotinamide to reduce the rate of new nonmelanoma skin cancers and actinic keratoses in a group of people at high risk for the conditions.[37] Nicotinamide has been investigated for many additional disorders, including treatment of bullous pemphigoid nonmelanoma skin cancers.[38] Niacinamide may be beneficial in treating psoriasis.[39] There is tentative evidence for a potential role of nicotinamide in treating acne, rosacea, autoimmune blistering disorders, ageing skin, and atopic dermatitis.[38] Niacinamide also inhibits poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARP-1), enzymes involved in the rejoining of DNA strand breaks induced by radiation or chemotherapy.[40] ARCON (accelerated radiotherapy plus carbogen inhalation and nicotinamide) has been studied in cancer.[41] See also
References1. ^{{GESTIS|ZVG=40300}} 2. ^{{cite book|last1 = Bender|first1 = David A.|title = Nutritional Biochemistry of the Vitamins|year = 2003|publisher = Cambridge University Press|isbn = 978-1-139-43773-8|page = 203|url = https://books.google.ca/books?id=umylV1Jbm4EC&pg=PA203|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161230000447/https://books.google.ca/books?id=umylV1Jbm4EC&pg=PA203|archivedate = 2016-12-30|df = }} 3. ^1 2 3 {{cite book|title = British National Formulary: BNF 69|year = 2015|publisher = British Medical Association|isbn = 978-0-85711-156-2|page = 822|edition = 69th}} 4. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite book|title = WHO Model Formulary 2008|year = 2009|publisher = World Health Organization|isbn = 978-924-154765-9|pages = 496, 500|url = http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/documents/s16879e/s16879e.pdf|accessdate = December 8, 2016|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161213060118/http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/documents/s16879e/s16879e.pdf|archivedate = December 13, 2016|df = }} 5. ^1 {{cite journal|last1 = MacKay|first1 = D.|last2 = Hathcock|first2 = J.|last3 = Guarneri|first3 = E.|title = Niacin: Chemical forms, bioavailability, and health effects|journal = Nutrition Reviews|volume = 70|issue = 6|pages = 357–366|year = 2012|pmid = 22646128|doi = 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00479.x}} 6. ^1 2 {{cite web|title = Niacinamide Use During Pregnancy|website = Drugs.com|url = https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/niacinamide.html|accessdate = December 29, 2016|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161230002412/https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/niacinamide.html|archivedate = December 30, 2016|df = }} 7. ^1 2 {{cite web|title = Niacinamide: Indications, Side Effects, Warnings|website = Drugs.com|url = https://www.drugs.com/cdi/niacinamide.html|date = June 6, 2017|accessdate = June 30, 2017|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170805061933/https://www.drugs.com/cdi/niacinamide.html|archivedate = August 5, 2017|df = }} 8. ^1 {{cite book|last1 = Krutmann|first1 = Jean|last2 = Humbert|first2 = Philippe|title = Nutrition for Healthy Skin: Strategies for Clinical and Cosmetic Practice|year = 2010|publisher = Springer Science & Business Media|isbn = 9783642122644|page = 153|url = https://books.google.ca/books?id=rUNZHmpBu2sC&pg=PA153|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170410213829/https://books.google.ca/books?id=rUNZHmpBu2sC&pg=PA153|archivedate = 2017-04-10|df = }} 9. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite journal|last1 = Knip|first1 = M.|last2 = Douek|first2 = I. F.|last3 = Moore|first3 = W. P.|last4 = Gillmor|first4 = H. A.|last5 = McLean|first5 = A. E.|last6 = Bingley|first6 = P. J.|last7 = Gale|first7 = E. A.|title = Safety of high-dose nicotinamide: A review|journal = Diabetologia|volume = 43|issue = 11|pages = 1337–1345|year = 2000|pmid = 11126400|doi = 10.1007/s001250051536|url = https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs001250051536.pdf}} 10. ^{{cite book|last1 = Burtis|first1 = Carl A.|last2 = Ashwood|first2 = Edward R.|last3 = Bruns|first3 = David E.|title = Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics|year = 2012|publisher = Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn = 978-1-4557-5942-2|page = 934|edition = 5th|url = https://books.google.ca/books?id=BBLRUI4aHhkC&pg=PA934|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161230230446/https://books.google.ca/books?id=BBLRUI4aHhkC&pg=PA934|archivedate = 2016-12-30|df = }} 11. ^{{cite book|last1 = Sneader|first1 = Walter|title = Drug Discovery: A History|year = 2005|publisher = John Wiley & Sons|isbn = 978-0-470-01552-0|page = 231|url = https://books.google.ca/books?id=jglFsz5EJR8C&pg=PA231|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161230002103/https://books.google.ca/books?id=jglFsz5EJR8C&pg=PA231|archivedate = 2016-12-30|df = }} 12. ^{{cite web|title = WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (19th List)|url = http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/essentialmedicines/EML_2015_FINAL_amended_NOV2015.pdf?ua=1|publisher = World Health Organization|work = WHO Model List of Essential Medicines|accessdate = December 8, 2016|year = 2015|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161213052708/http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/essentialmedicines/EML_2015_FINAL_amended_NOV2015.pdf?ua=1|archivedate = December 13, 2016|df = }} 13. ^1 2 3 {{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia = Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|year = 2015|publisher = Wiley-VCH|location = Weinheim|isbn = 978-3-527-30385-4|edition = 6th|title = Vitamins, 11. Niacin (Nicotinic Acid, Nicotinamide|pages = 1–9|first = René|last = Blum|doi = 10.1002/14356007.o27_o14.pub2|chapter = Vitamins, 11. Niacin (Nicotinic Acid, Nicotinamide)}} 14. ^{{cite journal|last = Pitche|first = Palokinam T.|year = 2005|title = Pellagre et érythèmes pellagroïdes|language = French|url = http://www.jle.com/download/san-266699-pellagre_et_erythemes_pellagroides--WVZrYX8AAQEAAFcgPLwAAAAA-a.pdf|journal = Cahiers Santé|volume = 15|issue = 3|pages = 205–208|pmid = 16207585}} 15. ^{{cite journal|last = Niren|first = N. M.|title = Pharmacologic doses of nicotinamide in the treatment of inflammatory skin conditions: A review|journal = Cutis|volume = 77|issue = 1 (Supplement: Nicotinamide and Zinc in the Treatment of Acne and Rosacea)|pages = 11–16|year = 2006|pmid = 16871774}} 16. ^{{cite journal|last1 = Tanno|first1 = O.|last2 = Ota|first2 = Y.|last3 = Kitamura|first3 = N.|last4 = Katsube|first4 = T.|last5 = Inoue|first5 = S.|title = Nicotinamide increases biosynthesis of ceramides as well as other stratum corneum lipids to improve the epidermal permeability barrier|journal = The British Journal of Dermatology|volume = 143|issue = 3|pages = 524–531|year = 2000|pmid = 10971324|doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2000.03705.x}} 17. ^{{cite journal|last1 = Draelos|first1 = Z. D.|last2 = Matsubara|first2 = A.|last3 = Smiles|first3 = K.|title = The effect of 2% niacinamide on facial sebum production|journal = Journal of Cosmetic and Laser Therapy|volume = 8|issue = 2|pages = 96–101|year = 2006|pmid = 16766489|doi = 10.1080/14764170600717704}} 18. ^{{cite journal|last1 = Kim|first1 = J.|last2 = Ochoa|first2 = M. T.|last3 = Krutzik|first3 = S. R.|last4 = Takeuchi|first4 = O.|last5 = Uematsu|first5 = S.|last6 = Legaspi|first6 = A. J.|last7 = Brightbill|first7 = H. D.|last8 = Holland|first8 = D.|last9 = Cunliffe|first9 = W. J.|last10 = Akira|first10 = S.|last11 = Sieling|first11 = P. A.|last12 = Godowski|first12 = P. J.|last13 = Modlin|first13 = R. L.|title = Activation of toll-like receptor 2 in acne triggers inflammatory cytokine responses|journal = Journal of Immunology|volume = 169|issue = 3|pages = 1535–1541|year = 2002|pmid = 12133981|doi = 10.4049/jimmunol.169.3.1535|pmc = 4636337}} 19. ^{{cite journal |last1=Snaidr |first1=VA |last2=Damian |first2=DL |last3=Halliday |first3=GM |title=Nicotinamide for photoprotection and skin cancer chemoprevention: A review of efficacy and safety. |journal=Experimental Dermatology |date=February 2019 |volume=28 Suppl 1 |pages=15–22 |doi=10.1111/exd.13819 |pmid=30698874}} 20. ^{{OrgSynth|title = Nicotinamide-1-oxide|year = 1957|volume = 37|pages = 63|doi = 10.15227/orgsyn.037.0063|first1 = E. C.|last1 = Taylor|first2 = Aldo J.|last2 = Crovetti|collvol = 4|collvolpages = 704|prep = CV4P0704}} 21. ^{{OrgSynth|title = 2-Chloronicitinonitrile|year = 1957|volume = 37|pages = 12|doi = 10.15227/orgsyn.037.0012|first1 = E. C.|last1 = Taylor|first2 = Aldo J.|last2 = Crovetti|collvol = 4|collvolpages = 166|prep = CV4P0166}} 22. ^{{OrgSynth|title = Nicotinonitrile|year = 1953|volume = 33|pages = 52|doi = 10.15227/orgsyn.033.0052|first1 = Peyton C.|last1 = Teague|first2 = William A.|last2 = Short|collvol = 4|collvolpages = 706|prep = CV4P0706}} 23. ^{{OrgSynth|title = 3-Aminopyridine|year = 1950|volume = 30|pages = 3|doi = 10.15227/orgsyn.030.0003|first1 = C. F. H.|last1 = Allen|first2 = Calvin N.|last2 = Wolf|collvol = 4|collvolpages = 45|prep = CV4P0045}} 24. ^{{cite journal|title = Nitrile Hydratase-Catalyzed Production of Nicotinamide from 3-Cyanopyridine in Rhodococcus rhodochrous J1|first1 = Toru|last1 = Nagasawa|first2 = Caluwadewa Deepal|last2 = Mathew|first3 = Jacques|last3 = Mauger|first4 = Hideaki|last4 = Yamada|journal = Appl. Environ. Microbiol.|year = 1988|volume = 54|issue = 7|pages = 1766–1769|url = http://aem.asm.org/content/54/7/1766.full.pdf+html|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20171105201921/http://aem.asm.org/content/54/7/1766.full.pdf+html|archivedate = 2017-11-05|df = }} 25. ^{{cite book|title = White Biotechnology|journal = Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology|editor1-first = Roland|editor1-last = Ulber|editor2-first = Dieter|editor2-last = Sell|chapter = Building Blocks|volume = 105|series = Advances in Biochemical Engineering / Biotechnology|isbn = 9783540456957|doi = 10.1007/10_033|pmid = 17408083|pages = 133–173|chapter-url = https://books.google.com.au/books?id=_tXoG93OWHgC&pg=PA141|publisher = Springer Science & Business Media|year = 2007|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20171105201921/https://books.google.com.au/books?id=_tXoG93OWHgC&pg=PA141|archivedate = 2017-11-05|df = |last1 = Hilterhaus|first1 = L.|last2 = Liese|first2 = A.}} 26. ^1 {{cite book|title = Biocatalysis in Organic Synthesis 1|series = Science of Synthesis|publisher = Georg Thieme Verlag|year = 2015|chapter = Enzymatic Synthesis of Amides|first1 = J. W.|last1 = Schmidberger|first2 = L. J.|last2 = Hepworth|first3 = A. P.|last3 = Green|first4 = S. L.|last4 = Flitsch|pages = 329–372|editor1-first = Kurt|editor1-last = Faber|editor2-first = Wolf-Dieter|editor2-last = Fessner|editor3-first = Nicholas J.|editor3-last = Turner|chapter-url = https://books.google.com.au/books?id=8h_wBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA362|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20171105201921/https://books.google.com.au/books?id=8h_wBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA362|archivedate = 2017-11-05|df = }} 27. ^{{cite book|title = Biocatalysis in Organic Synthesis 1|series = Science of Synthesis|publisher = Georg Thieme Verlag|year = 2015|chapter = Hydrolysis of Nitriles to Amides|first1 = Y.|last1 = Asano|pages = 255–276|editor1-first = Kurt|editor1-last = Faber|editor2-first = Wolf-Dieter|editor2-last = Fessner|editor3-first = Nicholas J.|editor3-last = Turner|chapter-url = https://books.google.com.au/books?id=8h_wBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA256|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20171105201921/https://books.google.com.au/books?id=8h_wBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA256|archivedate = 2017-11-05|df = }} 28. ^{{cite journal|title = Biocatalysis|first1 = Michael|last1 = Petersen|first2 = Andreas|last2 = Kiener|doi = 10.1039/A809538H|journal = Green Chem.|year = 1999|volume = 1|issue = 2|pages = 99–106}} 29. ^{{cite book|title = Biocatalysis in Organic Synthesis 1|series = Science of Synthesis|publisher = Georg Thieme Verlag|year = 2015|chapter = Historical Perspectives: Paving the Way for the Future|first1 = S.|last1 = Servi|first2 = D.|last2 = Tessaro|first3 = F.|last3 = Hollmann|pages = 1–39|editor1-first = Kurt|editor1-last = Faber|editor2-first = Wolf-Dieter|editor2-last = Fessner|editor3-first = Nicholas J.|editor3-last = Turner|chapter-url = https://books.google.com.au/books?id=8h_wBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20171105201921/https://books.google.com.au/books?id=8h_wBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|archivedate = 2017-11-05|df = }} 30. ^1 {{cite journal|year = 2007|title = NAD+ metabolism in health and disease|url = http://www.dartmouth.edu/~brenner/belenky07a.pdf|journal = Trends in Biochemical Sciences|volume = 32|issue = 1|pages = 12–19|doi = 10.1016/j.tibs.2006.11.006|pmid = 17161604|last1 = Belenky|first1 = P.|last2 = Bogan|first2 = K. L.|last3 = Brenner|first3 = C.|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927170330/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~brenner/belenky07a.pdf|archivedate = 2007-09-27|df = }} 31. ^{{cite journal|title = Parkinson's disease: The first common neurological disease due to auto-intoxication?|last1 = Williams|first1 = A. C.|last2 = Cartwright|first2 = L. S.|last3 = Ramsden|first3 = D. B.|year = 2015|journal = QJM|volume = 98|issue = 3|pages = 215–226|doi = 10.1093/qjmed/hci027|pmid = 15728403}} 32. ^1 {{cite web|url = http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/Cytochromes/cytochromes.html|title = Energy for the Body: Oxidative Phosphorylation|website = www.chemistry.wustl.edu|date = September 5, 2008|accessdate = March 14, 2017|first1 = Rachel|last1 = Casiday|first2 = Carolyn|last2 = Herman|first3 = Regina|last3 = Frey|publisher = Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20161122122250/http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/Cytochromes/cytochromes.html|archivedate = November 22, 2016|df = }} 33. ^{{cite journal|year = 2014|title = A review of nicotinamide: Treatment of skin diseases and potential side effects|journal = Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology|volume = 13|issue = 4|pages = 324–328|doi = 10.1111/jocd.12119|pmid = 25399625|last = Rolfe|first = Heidi M.}} 34. ^{{cite web|url = http://www.dermnetnz.org/topics/nicotinamide/|title = Nicotinamide|website = DermNet New Zealand (www.dermnetnz.org)|publisher = DermNet New Zealand Trust|accessdate = June 30, 2017|first = Anoma|last = Ranaweera|year = 2017|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20170325025401/http://www.dermnetnz.org/topics/nicotinamide/|archivedate = March 25, 2017|df = }} 35. ^{{cite book|author = British Pharmacopoeia Commission Secretariat|title = Index, BP 2009|year = 2009|url = http://www.pharmacopoeia.co.uk/pdf/2009_index.pdf|accessdate = February 4, 2010|dead-url = yes|archive-date = July 22, 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110722134527/http://www.pharmacopoeia.co.uk/pdf/2009_index.pdf}} 36. ^{{cite book|title = Japanese Pharmacopoeia|edition = 15th|year = 2006|dead-url = yes|url = http://jpdb.nihs.go.jp/jp15e/JP15.pdf|accessdate = February 4, 2010|archive-date = July 22, 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110722105441/http://jpdb.nihs.go.jp/jp15e/JP15.pdf}} 37. ^{{cite journal|last1=Minocha|first1=R|last2=Damian|first2=DL|last3=Halliday|first3=GM|title=Melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancer chemoprevention: A role for nicotinamide?|journal=Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine|volume=34|issue=1|pages=5–12|date=5 July 2017|doi=10.1111/phpp.12328|pmid=28681504}} 38. ^1 {{cite journal|last1 = Chen|first1 = Andrew C.|last2 = Damian|first2 = Diona L.|title = Nicotinamide and the skin|journal = Australasian Journal of Dermatology|volume = 55|issue = 3|pages = 169–175|year = 2014|pmid = 24635573|doi = 10.1111/ajd.12163}} 39. ^{{cite journal|last = Namazi|first = Mohammad Reza|year = 2003|title = Nicotinamide: A potential addition to the anti-psoriatic weaponry|journal = The FASEB Journal|volume = 17|issue = 11|pages = 1377–1379|doi = 10.1096/fj.03-0002hyp|pmid = 12890690}} 40. ^{{cite web|url = http://www.cancer.gov/drugdictionary/?CdrID=42044|title = Definition of niacinamide|work = NCI Drug Dictionary|publisher = National Cancer Institute|accessdate = June 30, 2017|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150428051605/http://www.cancer.gov/drugdictionary?cdrid=42044|archivedate = April 28, 2015|df = |date = 2011-02-02}} 41. ^{{cite journal | last=Kaanders | first=Johannes HAM | last2=Bussink | first2=Johan | last3=van der Kogel | first3=Albert J | title=ARCON: a novel biology-based approach in radiotherapy | journal=The Lancet Oncology | volume=3 | issue=12 | year=2002 | issn=1470-2045 | doi=10.1016/s1470-2045(02)00929-4 | pages=728–737}} External links
5 : Nicotinamides|Vitamins|GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators|World Health Organization essential medicines|RTT |
| 随便看 |
|
开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。