“North Sea”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between the United Kingdom (particularly England and Scotland), Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and France. An epeiric (or "shelf") sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north. It is more than {{convert|970|km|mi}} long and {{convert|580|km|mi}} wide, with an area of {{convert|570000|km2|sqmi}}.

The North Sea has long been the site of important European shipping lanes as well as a major fishery. The sea is a popular destination for recreation and tourism in bordering countries and more recently has developed into a rich source of energy resources including fossil fuels, wind, and early efforts in wave power.

Historically, the North Sea has featured prominently in geopolitical and military affairs, particularly in Northern Europe. It was also important globally through the power northern Europeans projected worldwide during much of the Middle Ages and into the modern era. The North Sea was the centre of the Vikings' rise. Subsequently, the Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and the British each sought to dominate the North Sea and thus access to the world's markets and resources. As Germany's only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategically important through both World Wars.

The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features. In the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas in the south, the coast consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the dense population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it, there have been various environmental issues affecting the sea's ecosystems. Adverse environmental issues – commonly including overfishing, industrial and agricultural runoff, dredging, and dumping, among others – have led to a number of efforts to prevent degradation of the sea while still making use of its economic potential.

Geography

The North Sea is bounded by the Orkney Islands and east coast of Great Britain to the west^[1] and the northern and central European mainland to the east and south, including Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France.^[2] In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean.^[1]^[2] In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat,^[2] narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively.^[1] In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, which lies in the very north-eastern part of the Atlantic.^[1]^[3]

The North Sea is more than {{convert|970|km|mi}} long and {{convert|580|km|mi}} wide, with an area of {{convert|570000|km2|sqmi}} and a volume of {{convert|54000|km3}}.^[4] Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, and the Frisian Islands.^[2] The North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea, including water from the Baltic Sea. The largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and the Rhine – Meuse watershed.^[5] Around 185 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas.^[6]

Major features

For the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of {{convert|90|m}}.^[1]^[7] The only exception is the Norwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to an area north of Bergen.^[1] It is between {{convert|20|and|30|km|mi}} wide and has a maximum depth of {{convert|725|m}}.^[8]

The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris, rises to a mere {{cvt|15|to|30|m|round=5}} below the surface.^[9]^[10] This feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea.^[1] The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large areas with roughly uniform depth in fathoms, (forty fathoms and fourteen fathoms or {{cvt|73|and|26|m|disp=or}} deep respectively). These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate,^[11] which has been alleviated by the implementation of satellite navigation systems.^[12] The Devil's Hole lies {{convert|200|mi}} east of Dundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of asymmetrical trenches between {{convert|20|and|30|km|mi}} long, {{convert|1|and|2|km|mi|spell=in|1}} wide and up to {{convert|230|m}} deep.^[13]

Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, Fisher Bank and Noordhinder Bank.

Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the North Sea as follows:^[14]

Hydrology

The average temperature in summer is {{convert|17|°C|°F}} and {{convert|6|°C|°F}} in the winter.^[4] The average temperatures have been trending higher since 1988, which has been attributed to climate change.^[16]^[17] Air temperatures in January range on average between {{convert|0|to|4|C|F}} and in July between {{convert|13|to|18|C|F}}. The winter months see frequent gales and storms.^[1]

The salinity averages between {{convert|34|to|35|g/l|g/usgal|}} of water.^[4] The salinity has the highest variability where there is fresh water inflow, such as at the Rhine and Elbe estuaries, the Baltic Sea exit and along the coast of Norway.^[18]

The main pattern to the flow of water in the North Sea is an anti-clockwise rotation along the edges.^[19]

The North Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean receiving the majority of ocean current from the northwest opening, and a lesser portion of warm current from the smaller opening at the English Channel. These tidal currents leave along the Norwegian coast.^[20] Surface and deep water currents may move in different directions. Low salinity surface coastal waters move offshore, and deeper, denser high salinity waters move in shore.^[21]

The North Sea located on the continental shelf has different waves from those in deep ocean water. The wave speeds are diminished and the wave amplitudes are increased. In the North Sea there are two amphidromic systems and a third incomplete amphidromic system.^[22]^[23] In the North Sea the average tide difference in wave amplitude is between zero and {{convert|8|m|ft|spell=in}}.^[4]

The Kelvin tide of the Atlantic ocean is a semidiurnal wave that travels northward. Some of the energy from this wave travels through the English Channel into the North Sea. The wave still travels northward in the Atlantic Ocean, and once past the northern tip of Great Britain, the Kelvin wave turns east and south and once again enters into the North Sea.^[24]

Coasts

The eastern and western coasts of the North Sea are jagged, formed by glaciers during the ice ages. The coastlines along the southernmost part are covered with the remains of deposited glacial sediment.^[1] The Norwegian mountains plunge into the sea creating deep fjords and archipelagos. South of Stavanger, the coast softens, the islands become fewer.^[1] The eastern Scottish coast is similar, though less severe than Norway. From north east of England, the cliffs become lower and are composed of less resistant moraine, which erodes more easily, so that the coasts have more rounded contours.^[59]^[60] In the Netherlands, Belgium and in East Anglia the littoral is low and marshy.^[1] The east coast and south-east of the North Sea (Wadden Sea) have coastlines that are mainly sandy and straight owing to longshore drift, particularly along Belgium and Denmark.^[61]

Coastal management

The southern coastal areas were originally amphibious flood plains and swampy land. In areas especially vulnerable to storm surges, people settled behind elevated levees and on natural areas of high ground such as spits and geestland.^[84]{{rp|[302,303]}} As early as 500 BC, people were constructing artificial dwelling hills higher than the prevailing flood levels.^[84]{{rp|[306,308]}} It was only around the beginning of the High Middle Ages, in 1200 AD, that inhabitants began to connect single ring dikes into a dike line along the entire coast, thereby turning amphibious regions between the land and the sea into permanent solid ground.^[62]

The modern form of the dikes supplemented by overflow and lateral diversion channels, began to appear in the 17th and 18th centuries, built in the Netherlands.^[63] The North Sea Floods of 1953 and 1962 were impetus for further raising of the dikes as well as the shortening of the coast line so as to present as little surface area as possible to the punishment of the sea and the storms.^[64] Currently, 27% of the Netherlands is below sea level protected by dikes, dunes, and beach flats.^[65]

Storm tides

Storm surges are caused by changes in barometric pressure combined with strong wind created wave action.^[69]

The first recorded storm tide flood was the Julianenflut, on 17 February 1164. In its wake the Jadebusen, (a bay on the coast of Germany), began to form.

A storm tide in 1228 is recorded to have killed more than 100,000 people.^[70] In 1362, the Second Marcellus Flood, also known as the Grote Manndrenke, hit the entire southern coast of the North Sea. Chronicles of the time again record more than 100,000 deaths as large parts of the coast were lost permanently to the sea, including the now legendary lost city of Rungholt.^[71]

In the 20th century, the North Sea flood of 1953 flooded several nations' coasts and cost more than 2,000 lives.^[72]

Tsunamis

Though rare, the North Sea has been the site of a number of historically documented tsunamis. The Storegga Slides were a series of underwater landslides, in which a piece of the Norwegian continental shelf slid into the Norwegian Sea. The immense landslips occurred between 8150 BCE and 6000 BCE, and caused a tsunami up to {{convert|20|m|ft}} high that swept through the North Sea, having the greatest effect on Scotland and the Faeroe Islands.^[74]^[75]

The Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 is among the first recorded earthquakes in the North Sea measuring between 5.6 and 5.9 on the Richter scale. This event caused extensive damage in Calais both through its tremors and possibly triggered a tsunami, though this has never been confirmed. The theory is a vast underwater landslide in the English Channel was triggered by the earthquake, which in turn caused a tsunami.^[103] The tsunami triggered by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake reached Holland, although the waves had lost their destructive power. The largest earthquake ever recorded in the United Kingdom was the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake, which measured 6.1 on the Richter magnitude scale and caused a small tsunami that flooded parts of the British coast.^[76]

Geology

Shallow epicontinental seas like the current North Sea have since long existed on the European continental shelf. The rifting that formed the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, from about {{ma|150}}, caused tectonic uplift in the British Isles.^[77] Since then, a shallow sea has almost continuously existed between the uplands of the Fennoscandian Shield and the British Isles.^[78] This precursor of the current North Sea has grown and shrunk with the rise and fall of the eustatic sea level during geologic time. Sometimes it was connected with other shallow seas, such as the sea above the Paris Basin to the south-west, the Paratethys Sea to the south-east, or the Tethys Ocean to the south.^[79]

During the Late Cretaceous, about {{ma|85}}, all of modern mainland Europe except for Scandinavia was a scattering of islands.^[108] By the Early Oligocene, {{ma|34|28}}, the emergence of Western and Central Europe had almost completely separated the North Sea from the Tethys Ocean, which gradually shrank to become the Mediterranean as Southern Europe and South West Asia became dry land.^[80] The North Sea was cut off from the English Channel by a narrow land bridge until that was breached by at least two catastrophic floods between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago.^[81]^[82] Since the start of the Quaternary period about {{ma|2.6}}, the eustatic sea level has fallen during each glacial period and then risen again. Every time the ice sheet reached its greatest extent, the North Sea became almost completely dry. The present-day coastline formed after the Last Glacial Maximum when the sea began to flood the European continental shelf.^[83]

In 2006 a bone fragment was found while drilling for oil in the north sea. Analysis indicated that it was a Plateosaurus from 199 to 216 million years ago. This was the deepest dinosaur fossil ever found and the first find for Norway.^[84]

Nature

Fish and shellfish

Birds

The coasts of the North Sea are home to nature reserves including the Ythan Estuary, Fowlsheugh Nature Preserve, and Farne Islands in the UK and the Wadden Sea National Parks in Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands.^[87] These locations provide breeding habitat for dozens of bird species. Tens of millions of birds make use of the North Sea for breeding, feeding, or migratory stopovers every year. Populations of black legged kittiwakes, Atlantic puffins, northern fulmars, and species of petrels, gannets, seaducks, loons (divers), cormorants, gulls, auks, and terns, and many other seabirds make these coasts popular for birdwatching.^[87]^[85]

Marine mammals

The North Sea is also home to marine mammals. Common seals, and harbour porpoises can be found along the coasts, at marine installations, and on islands. The very northern North Sea islands such as the Shetland Islands are occasionally home to a larger variety of pinnipeds including bearded, harp, hooded and ringed seals, and even walrus.^[88] North Sea cetaceans include various porpoise, dolphin and whale species.^[85]^[89]

Flora

Plant species in the North Sea include species of wrack, among them bladder wrack, knotted wrack, and serrated wrack. Algae, macroalgal, and kelp, such as oarweed and laminaria hyperboria, and species of maerl are found as well.^[85] Eelgrass, formerly common in the entirety of the Wadden Sea, was nearly wiped out in the 20th century by a disease.^[90] Similarly, sea grass used to coat huge tracts of ocean floor, but have been damaged by trawling and dredging have diminished its habitat and prevented its return.^[91] Invasive Japanese seaweed has spread along the shores of the sea clogging harbours and inlets and has become a nuisance.^[92]

Biodiversity and conservation

Due to the heavy human populations and high level of industrialization along its shores, the wildlife of the North Sea has suffered from pollution, overhunting, and overfishing. Flamingos and pelicans were once found along the southern shores of the North Sea, but became extinct over the 2nd millennium.^[93] Walruses frequented the Orkney Islands through the mid-16th century, as both Sable Island and Orkney Islands lay within its normal range.^[94] Gray whales also resided in the North Sea but were driven to extinction in the Atlantic in the 17th century^[95] Other species have dramatically declined in population, though they are still found. North Atlantic right whales, sturgeon, shad, rays, skates, salmon, and other species were common in the North Sea until the 20th century, when numbers declined due to overfishing.^[96]^[97] Other factors like the introduction of non-indigenous species, industrial and agricultural pollution, trawling and dredging, human-induced eutrophication, construction on coastal breeding and feeding grounds, sand and gravel extraction, offshore construction, and heavy shipping traffic have also contributed to the decline.^[85]

For example, a resident killer whale pod was lost in the 1960s, presumably due to the peak in PCB pollution in this time period.^[98]

The OSPAR commission manages the OSPAR convention to counteract the harmful effects of human activity on wildlife in the North Sea, preserve endangered species, and provide environmental protection.^[99] All North Sea border states are signatories of the MARPOL 73/78 Accords, which preserve the marine environment by preventing pollution from ships.^[100]

Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands also have a trilateral agreement for the protection of the Wadden Sea, or mudflats, which run along the coasts of the three countries on the southern edge of the North Sea.^[101]

Names

The North Sea has had various names through history. One of the earliest recorded names was Septentrionalis Oceanus, or "Northern Ocean," which was cited by Pliny.^[102] The name "North Sea" probably came into English, however, via the Dutch "Noordzee", who named it thus either in contrast with the Zuiderzee ("South Sea"), located south of Frisia, or because the sea is generally to the north of the Netherlands. Before the adoption of "North Sea," the names used in English were "German Sea" or "German Ocean", referred to the Latin names "Mare Gemanicum" and "Oceanus Germanicus",^[103] and these persisted in use until the First World War.^[104]

Other common names in use for long periods were the Latin terms "Mare Frisicum",^[105] as well as the English equivalent, "Frisian Sea".^[106]

The modern names of the sea in the other local languages are: {{lang-da|Vesterhavet}} or Nordsøen, {{lang-nl|Noordzee}}, {{lang-nds-nl|Noordzee}}, {{lang-fr|Mer du Nord}}, {{lang-fry|Noardsee}}, {{lang-de|Nordsee}}, {{lang-nds|Noordsee}}, Northern Frisian: Weestsiie (literally meaning "West Sea"), {{lang-no|Nordsjøen}}, {{lang-nn|Nordsjøen}}, {{lang-sco|German Ocean}}, {{lang-sv|Nordsjön}}, {{lang-gd|An Cuan a Tuath}}, {{lang-vls|Nôordzêe}} and Zeeuws: Noôrdzeê.

History

Early history

North Sea has provided waterway access for commerce and conquest. Many areas have access to the North Sea because of its long coastline and the European rivers that empty into it.^[1] The British Isles had been protected from invasion by the North Sea waters^[1] until the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 CE. The Romans established organised ports, which increased shipping, and began sustained trade.^[107] When the Romans abandoned Britain in 410, the Germanic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began the next great migration across the North Sea during the Migration Period. They made successive invasions of the island.^[108]

The Viking Age began in 793 with the attack on Lindisfarne; for the next quarter-millennium the Vikings ruled the North Sea. In their superior longships, they raided, traded, and established colonies and outposts along the coasts of the sea. From the Middle Ages through the 15th century, the northern European coastal ports exported domestic goods, dyes, linen, salt, metal goods and wine. The Scandinavian and Baltic areas shipped grain, fish, naval necessities, and timber. In turn the North Sea countries imported high-grade cloths, spices, and fruits from the Mediterranean region.^[149] Commerce during this era was mainly conducted by maritime trade due to underdeveloped roadways.^[109]

In the 13th century the Hanseatic League, though centred on the Baltic Sea, started to control most of the trade through important members and outposts on the North Sea.^[110] The League lost its dominance in the 16th century, as neighbouring states took control of former Hanseatic cities and outposts. Their internal conflict prevented effective cooperation and defence.^[111] As the League lost control of its maritime cities, new trade routes emerged that provided Europe with Asian, American, and African goods.^[112]^[113]

Age of sail

The 17th century Dutch Golden Age during which Dutch herring, cod and whale fisheries reached an all time high^[109] saw Dutch power at its zenith.^[114]^[115] Important overseas colonies, a vast merchant marine, powerful navy and large profits made the Dutch the main challengers to an ambitious England. This rivalry led to the first three Anglo-Dutch Wars between 1652 and 1673, which ended with Dutch victories.^[115] After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, the Dutch prince William ascended to the English throne. With unified leadership, commercial, military, and political power began to shift from Amsterdam to London.^[116]

The British did not face a challenge to their dominance of the North Sea until the 20th century.^[117]

Modern era

Tensions in the North Sea were again heightened in 1904 by the Dogger Bank incident. During the Russo-Japanese War, several ships of the Russian Baltic Fleet, which was on its way to the Far East, mistook British fishing boats for Japanese ships and fired on them, and then upon each other, near the Dogger Bank, nearly causing Britain to enter the war on the side of Japan.

During the First World War, Great Britain's Grand Fleet and Germany's Kaiserliche Marine faced each other in the North Sea,^[118] which became the main theatre of the war for surface action.^[118] Britain's larger fleet and North Sea Mine Barrage were able to establish an effective blockade for most of the war, which restricted the Central Powers' access to many crucial resources.^[119] Major battles included the Battle of Heligoland Bight,^[120] the Battle of the Dogger Bank,^[165] and the Battle of Jutland.^[121]

World War I also brought the first extensive use of submarine warfare, and a number of submarine actions occurred in the North Sea.^[122]

The Second World War also saw action in the North Sea,^[123] though it was restricted more to aircraft reconnaissance, and action by fighter/bomber aircraft, submarines, and smaller vessels such as minesweepers and torpedo boats.^[124]

In the aftermath of the war, hundreds of thousands of tons of chemical weapons were disposed of by being dumped in the North Sea.^[125]

After the war, the North Sea lost much of its military significance because it is bordered only by NATO member-states. However, it gained significant economic importance in the 1960s as the states around the North Sea began full-scale exploitation of its oil and gas resources.^[126] The North Sea continues to be an active trade route.^[127]

Economy

Political status

Countries that border the North Sea all claim the {{convert|12|nmi}} of territorial waters, within which they have exclusive fishing rights.^[128] The Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union (EU) exists to coordinate fishing rights and assist with disputes between EU states and the EU border state of Norway.^[129]

After the discovery of mineral resources in the North Sea, the Convention on the Continental Shelf established country rights largely divided along the median line. The median line is defined as the line "every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured."^[130]

The ocean floor border between Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark was only reapportioned after protracted negotiations and a judgement of the International Court of Justice.^[128]^[131]

Oil and gas

As early as 1859, oil was discovered in onshore areas around the North Sea and natural gas as early as 1910.^[132] Onshore resources, for example the K12-B field in the Netherlands continue to be exploited today.

Offshore test drilling began in 1966 and then, in 1969, Phillips Petroleum Company discovered the Ekofisk oil field^[133] distinguished by valuable, low-sulphur oil.^[134] Commercial exploitation began in 1971 with tankers and, after 1975, by a pipeline, first to Teesside, England and then, after 1977, also to Emden, Germany.^[135]

The exploitation of the North Sea oil reserves began just before the 1973 oil crisis, and the climb of international oil prices made the large investments needed for extraction much more attractive.^[136]

Although the production costs are relatively high, the quality of the oil, the political stability of the region, and the proximity of important markets in western Europe has made the North Sea an important oil-producing region.^[134] The largest single humanitarian catastrophe in the North Sea oil industry was the destruction of the offshore oil platform Piper Alpha in 1988 in which 167 people lost their lives.^[137]

Besides the Ekofisk oil field, the Statfjord oil field is also notable as it was the cause of the first pipeline to span the Norwegian trench.^[138] The largest natural gas field in the North Sea, Troll gas field, lies in the Norwegian trench, dropping over {{convert|300|m|ft}}, requiring the construction of the enormous Troll A platform to access it.

The price of Brent Crude, one of the first types of oil extracted from the North Sea, is used today as a standard price for comparison for crude oil from the rest of the world.^[139] The North Sea contains western Europe's largest oil and natural gas reserves and is one of the world's key non-OPEC producing regions.^[140]

In the UK sector of the North Sea, the oil industry invested £14.4 billion in 2013, and was on track to spend £13 billion in 2014. Industry body Oil & Gas UK put the decline down to rising costs, lower production, high tax rates, and less exploration.^[141]

As of January 2008 The North Sea region contains 184 offshore rigs, which makes it the region with the highest number of offshore rigs in the world.^[142]

Fishing

The North Sea is Europe's main fishery accounting for over 5% of international commercial fish caught.^[1] Fishing in the North Sea is concentrated in the southern part of the coastal waters. The main method of fishing is trawling.^[143]

In 1995, the total volume of fish and shellfish caught in the North Sea was approximately 3.5 million tonnes.^[144] Besides fish, it is estimated that one million tonnes of unmarketable by-catch is caught and discarded each year.^[145]

In recent decades, overfishing has left many fisheries unproductive, disturbing marine food chain dynamics and costing jobs in the fishing industry.^[146] Herring, cod and plaice fisheries may soon face the same plight as mackerel fishing, which ceased in the 1970s due to overfishing.^[147]

The objective of the European Union Common Fisheries Policy is to minimize the environmental impact associated with resource use by reducing fish discards, increasing productivity of fisheries, stabilising markets of fisheries and fish processing, and supplying fish at reasonable prices for the consumer.^[148]

Whaling

Whaling was an important economic activity from the 9th until the 13th century for Flemish whalers.^[149] The medieval Flemish, Basque and Norwegian whalers who were replaced in the 16th century by Dutch, English, Danes and Germans, took massive numbers of whales and dolphins and nearly depleted the right whales. This activity likely led to the extinction of the Atlantic population of the once common gray whale.^[150] By 1902 the whaling had ended.^[149] After being absent for 300 years a single gray whale returned,^[151] it probably was the first of many more to find its way through the now ice-free Northwest Passage. Once {{convert|16|m|ft|-1|adj=on}} "fish" were taken in large quantities at the mouth of the River Seine.^[152]

Mineral resources

In addition to oil, gas, and fish, the states along the North Sea also take millions of cubic metres per year of sand and gravel from the ocean floor. These are used for beach nourishment, land reclamation

Renewable energy

Due to the strong prevailing winds, and shallow water, countries on the North Sea, particularly Germany and Denmark, have used the shore for wind power since the 1990s.^[155] The North Sea is the home of one of the first large-scale offshore wind farms in the world, Horns Rev 1, completed in 2002. Since then many other wind farms have been commissioned in the North Sea (and elsewhere). As of 2013 the 630 megawatt (MW) London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, with the 504 (MW) Greater Gabbard wind farm the second largest, followed by the 367 MW Walney Wind Farm. All are off the coast of the UK. These projects will be dwarfed by subsequent wind farms that are in the pipeline, including Dogger Bank at 4,800 MW, Norfolk Bank (7,200 MW), and Irish Sea (4,200 MW). At the end of June 2013 total European combined offshore wind energy capacity was 6,040 MW. UK installed 513.5 MW offshore windpower in the first half-year of 2013.^[156]

The expansion of offshore wind farms has met with some resistance. Concerns have included shipping collisions^[157] and environmental effects on ocean ecology and wildlife such as fish and migratory birds,^[158] however, these concerns were found to be negligible in a long-term study in Denmark released in 2006 and again in a UK government study in 2009.^[159]^[160]

There are also concerns about reliability,^[161] and the rising costs of constructing and maintaining offshore wind farms.^[162] Despite these, development of North Sea wind power is continuing, with plans for additional wind farms off the coasts of Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK.^[163] There have also been proposals for a transnational power grid in the North Sea^[164]^[165] to connect new offshore wind farms.^[166]

Energy production from tidal power is still in a pre-commercial stage. The European Marine Energy Centre has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney mainland^[167] and a tidal power testing station on the nearby island of Eday.^[168] Since 2003, a prototype Wave Dragon energy converter has been in operation at Nissum Bredning fjord of northern Denmark.^[169]

Tourism

The beaches and coastal waters of the North Sea are destinations for tourists. The Belgian, Dutch, German and Danish coasts^[170]^[171] are developed for tourism. The North Sea coast of the United Kingdom has tourist destinations with beach resorts and golf courses.
Fife in Scotland is famous for its links golf courses. The coastal City of St. Andrews being renowned as the "Home of Golf". The coast of North East England has several tourist towns such as Scarborough, Bridlington, Seahouses, Whitby, Robin Hood's Bay and Seaton Carew. The coast of North East England has long sandy beaches and links golfing locations such as Seaton Carew Golf Club and Goswick Golf Club.

The North Sea Trail is a long-distance trail linking seven countries around the North Sea.^[172] Windsurfing and sailing^[173] are popular sports because of the strong winds. Mudflat hiking,^[174] recreational fishing and birdwatching^[171] are among other activities.

The climatic conditions on the North Sea coast have been claimed to be healthful. As early as the 19th century, travellers used their stays on the North Sea coast as curative and restorative vacations. The sea air, temperature, wind, water, and sunshine are counted among the beneficial conditions that are said to activate the body's defences, improve circulation, strengthen the immune system, and have healing effects on the skin and the respiratory system.^[175]

Marine traffic

The North Sea is important for marine transport and its shipping lanes are among the busiest in the world.^[128] Major ports are located along its coasts: Rotterdam, the busiest port in Europe and the fourth busiest port in the world by tonnage {{As of|2013|lc=on}}, Antwerp (was 16th) and Hamburg (was 27th), Bremen/Bremerhaven and Felixstowe, both in the top 30 busiest container seaports,^[176] as well as the Port of Bruges-Zeebrugge, Europe's leading ro-ro port.^[177]

Fishing boats, service boats for offshore industries, sport and pleasure craft, and merchant ships to and from North Sea ports and Baltic ports must share routes on the North Sea. The Dover Strait alone sees more than 400 commercial vessels a day.^[178] Because of this volume, navigation in the North Sea can be difficult in high traffic zones, so ports have established elaborate vessel traffic services to monitor and direct ships into and out of port.^[179]

The North Sea coasts are home to numerous canals and canal systems to facilitate traffic between and among rivers, artificial harbours, and the sea. The Kiel Canal, connecting the North Sea with the Baltic Sea, is the most heavily used artificial seaway in the world reporting an average of 89 ships per day not including sporting boats and other small watercraft in 2009.^[180] It saves an average of {{convert|250|nmi}}, instead of the voyage around the Jutland peninsula.^[181] The North Sea Canal connects Amsterdam with the North Sea.

See also

Notes

1. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³{{cite encyclopedia|last = L.M.A.|editor = University of Chicago|encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica Macropædia|title = Europe|edition = Fifteenth|year = 1985|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|volume =18|location = U.S.A.|isbn =978-0-85229-423-9|pages = 832–835}}
2. ^¹²³{{cite book|last=Ripley|first=George |author2=Charles Anderson Dana|title=The American Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/?id=GEpMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA499&dq=Norway,+Denmark,+Germany,+the+Netherlands,+Belgium,+and+France+%22North+Sea%22|format=Digitized 11 October 2007 by Google Books online|accessdate=26 December 2008|year=1883|publisher= D. Appleton and company|page=499}}
3. ^{{cite web|last=Helland-Hansen|first=Bjørn|author2=Fridtjof Nansen|title=IV. The Basin of the Norwegian Sea.|work=Report on Norwegian Fishery and Marine-Investigations Vol. 11 No. 2|year=1909|publisher=Geofysisk Institutt|url=http://web.gfi.uib.no/The%20Norwegian%20Sea/TNS-002.htm|accessdate=9 January 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114230040/http://web.gfi.uib.no/The%20Norwegian%20Sea/TNS-002.htm|archivedate=14 January 2009|df=dmy-all}}
4. ^¹²³{{cite web|title = About the North Sea: Key facts|publisher = Safety at Sea project: Norwegian Coastal Administration|year = 2008|url = http://www.safetyatsea.se/index.php?section=northsea|accessdate = 2 November 2008|deadurl = yes|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081209095426/http://www.safetyatsea.se/index.php?section=northsea|archivedate = 9 December 2008|df = dmy-all}}
5. ^{{cite book|last=Ray|first= Alan|author2=G. Carleton |author3=Jerry McCormick-Ray |title=Coastal-marine Conservation: Science and Policy|url=https://books.google.com/?id=E7xLaYVGEF4C&pg=PA262&dq=%22North+Sea%22+watershed|year= 2004|edition= illustrated|accessdate=21 January 2009|format=Digitized by Google Books online|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-0-632-05537-1|page=262}}
6. ^{{cite web |title = Chapter 5: North Sea |work = Environmental Guidebook on the Enclosed Coastal Seas of the World |publisher = International Center for the Environmental Management of Enclosed Coastal Seas |year = 2003 |url = http://www.emecs.or.jp/guidebook/eng/pdf/05north.pdf |accessdate = 24 November 2008 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081217143715/http://www.emecs.or.jp/guidebook/eng/pdf/05north.pdf |archivedate = 17 December 2008 |df = dmy-all}}
7. ^{{cite book|last=Calow|first=Peter|title=Blackwell's Concise Encyclopedia of Environmental Management|url=https://books.google.com/?id=L7V-JtHroGkC&pg=PA100|accessdate=26 December 2008|year= 1999|publisher= Blackwell Publishing|isbn= 978-0-632-04951-6}}
8. ^{{cite web| title=Limits in the seas: North Sea continental shelf boundaries | work=U.S. Department of State| publisher=United States Government| date=14 June 1974 | url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/62000.pdf| accessdate=17 June 2013}}
9. ^{{cite book|last=Ostergren|first= Robert Clifford|author2=John G. Rice |title=The Europeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment|format=Digitized by Google Books online|url=https://books.google.com/?id=wgPSUQ873scC&pg=PA62|year=2004|publisher=Guilford Press|location=Bath, UK|accessdate=10 January 2009|isbn= 978-0-89862-272-0|page=62}}
10. ^{{Cite book |publisher = Maptech Online MapServer |title = Dogger Bank |date = 1989–2008 |url = http://mapserver.maptech.com/homepage/index.cfm?lat=54.74456315454079&lon=2.3527509224287115&scale=1500000&zoom=50&type=0&icon=0&width=498&height=498&searchscope=dom&CFID=1719760&CFTOKEN=33728793&scriptfile=http://mapserver.maptech.com/homepage/index.cfm&latlontype=DMS |archive-url = https://archive.is/20120711211708/http://mapserver.maptech.com/homepage/index.cfm?lat=54.74456315454079&lon=2.3527509224287115&scale=1500000&zoom=50&type=0&icon=0&width=498&height=498&searchscope=dom&CFID=1719760&CFTOKEN=33728793&scriptfile=http://mapserver.maptech.com/homepage/index.cfm&latlontype=DMS |dead-url = yes |archive-date = 2012-07-11 |accessdate = 20 July 2007}}
11. ^{{cite book|last= Tuckey|first=James Hingston|title=Maritime Geography and Statistics ...|format=Digitized 2 May 2007 by Google Books online|url=https://books.google.com/?id=EMMBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA420&dq=%22north+forties%22++%22broad+fourteens%22++fathoms|year= 1815|accessdate=10 January 2009|publisher=Black, Parry & Co.|isbn=9780521311915|page=445}}
12. ^{{cite book|last= Bradford|first=Thomas Gamaliel|title=Encyclopædia Americana: A Popular Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, History, Politics, and Biography, Brought Down to the Present Time; Including a Copious Collection of Original Articles in American Biography; on the Basis of the Seventh Edition of the German Conversations-lexicon|format=Digitized 11 October 2007 by Google Books online|url=https://books.google.com/?id=cxsPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA445&dq=navigation+%22north+sea%22|year= 1838|accessdate=10 January 2009|publisher= Thomas, Cowperthwait, & co.|isbn=9780521311915|page=445}}
13. ^{{cite journal| journal=The Edinburgh Geologist| issue=14| date=Autumn 1983| title=The Devil's Hole in the North Sea| author=Alan Fyfe| url=http://www.edinburghgeolsoc.org/edingeologist/z_14_04.html/| accessdate=2 November 2008| deadurl=yes| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201164653/http://www.edinburghgeolsoc.org/edingeologist/z_14_04.html/| archivedate=1 December 2008| df=dmy-all}}
14. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition|year=1953|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|accessdate=6 February 2010}}
15. ^The Walde Lighthouse is {{convert|6|km|0|abbr=on}} east of Calais ({{Coord|50|59|06|N|1|55|00|E|display=inline}}), and Leathercoat Point is at the north end of St Margaret's Bay, Kent ({{Coord|51|10|00|N|1|24|00|E|display=inline}}).
16. ^[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/environment/globalwarming/6162167/North-Sea-cod-could-disappear-even-if-fishing-outlawed.html "North Sea cod 'could disappear' even if fishing outlawed"] Telegraph.co.uk
17. ^{{cite web|title =Global Warming Triggers North Sea Temperature Rise|work = Agence France-Presse|publisher = SpaceDaily.AFP and UPI Wire Stories|date =14 November 2006|url = http://www.terradaily.com/reports/Global_Warming_Triggers_North_Sea_Temperature_Rise_999.html|accessdate = 1 December 2008}}
18. ^{{cite book|last= Reddy|first=M. P. M.|title=Descriptive Physical Oceanography|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/?id=2NC3JmKI7mYC&pg=PA120|accessdate=3 December 2008|year=2001|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-90-5410-706-4|page=114|chapter=Annual variation in Surface Salinity}}
19. ^{{cite web|title = Met Office: Flood alert!|publisher = Met office UK government|date = 28 November 2006|url = http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/secondary/students/flood.html|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061231073713/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/secondary/students/flood.html|archivedate = 31 December 2006|accessdate = 2 November 2008}}
20. ^{{cite web |title = Safety at Sea |work = Currents in the North Sea |year = 2009 |url = http://www.safetyatsea.se/index.php?art=2041&group=400 |accessdate = 9 January 2009 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081209094254/http://www.safetyatsea.se/index.php?art=2041&group=400 |archivedate = 9 December 2008 |df = dmy-all}}
21. ^{{cite book|last= Freestone|first=David|author2=Ton IJlstra |title=The North Sea: Perspectives on Regional Environmental Co-operation|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/?id=sGSMw7gCOLYC&pg=PA67|accessdate=3 December 2008|year=1990|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=978-1-85333-413-9|pages=66–70|chapter=Physical Properties of Sea Water and their Distribution Annual: Variation in Surface Salinity}}
22. ^{{cite book|last=Dyke|first=Phil|title=Modeling Coastal and Offshore Processes|url=https://books.google.com/?id=c3MOQKCru6sC&pg=PA328|accessdate=4 December 2008|year=1974|publisher= Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-674-5|pages=323–365}} p. 329 tidal map showing amphidromes
23. ^{{cite book|last=Carter|first=R. W. G.|title=Coastal Environments: An Introduction to the Physical, Ecological and Cultural Systems of Coastlines|url=https://books.google.com/?id=STBKHpqMt6MC&pg=PA157|accessdate=4 December 2008|year=1974|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-161856-8|pages=155–158}} p. 157 tidal map showing amphidromes
24. ^{{cite book|last=Pugh|first=D. T.|title=Changing Sea Levels: Effects of Tides, Weather, and Climate|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ysa4ymmEotYC&pg=PA93|format=Digitized by Google Books online|accessdate=4 December 2008|year=2004|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-53218-1|page=93}} p. 94 shows the amphidromic points of the North Sea
25. ^Tide table for Lerwick: tide-forecast
26. ^Tide table for Aberdeen: tide-forecast
27. ^Tide table for North Shields: tide-forecast
28. ^Tide tables for Kingston upon Hull: Mobile Geographics and Tide-Forecast
29. ^Tide table for Grimsby: Tide-Forecast
30. ^Tide tables for Skegness: Visit My Harbour undTide-Forecast
31. ^Tide tables for King's Lynn: Visit My Harbour undTide-Forecast
32. ^Tide tables for Hunstanton: Visit My Harbour
33. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Harwich-England/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Harwich|work=tide-forecast.com}}
34. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/London-Bridge-England/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for London|work=tide-forecast.com}}
35. ^Tide tables for Dunkerque: Mobile Geographics and tide forecast
36. ^Tide tables for Zeebrugge: Mobile Geographics and tide forecast
37. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Antwerpen-Belgium/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Antwerpen|work=tide-forecast.com}}
38. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Rotterdam-Netherlands/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Rotterdam|work=tide-forecast.com}}
39. ^Ahnert. F.(2009): Einführung in die Geomorphologie. 4. Auflage. 393 S.
40. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.surf-forecast.com/breaks/Katwijkaan-Zee/tides/latest|title=Katwijk aan Zee Tide Times & Tide Charts|work=surf-forecast.com}}
41. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Den-Helder-Netherlands/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Den Helder|work=tide-forecast.com}}
42. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Harlingen-Netherlands/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Harlingen|work=tide-forecast.com}}
43. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Borkum-Germany/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Borkum|work=tide-forecast.com}}
44. ^Tide table for Emden {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221160235/http://de.windfinder.com/tide/Emden_Neue_Seeschleuse_Germany |date=21 February 2014 }}
45. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Wilhelmshaven-Germany/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Wilhelmshaven|work=tide-forecast.com}}
46. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Bremerhaven-Germany/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Bremerhaven|work=tide-forecast.com}}
47. ^{{cite web|url=http://gezeiten-kalender.de:9099/locations/473.html?y=2014&m=2&d=22|title=Gezeitenkalender für Bremen, Oslebshausen, Germany (Tidenkalender) – und viele weitere Orte|author=Guido Gerding|work=gezeiten-kalender.de}}
48. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.bsh.de/cgi-bin/gezeiten/was_tab.pl?ort=DE__752P&zone=Gesetzliche+Zeit+%B9&niveau=NN|archive-url=https://archive.is/20140217155825/http://www.bsh.de/cgi-bin/gezeiten/was_tab.pl?ort=DE__752P&zone=Gesetzliche+Zeit+%B9&niveau=NN|dead-url=yes|archive-date=2014-02-17|title=Gezeitenvorausberechnung|work=bsh.de}}
49. ^¹calculated from Ludwig Franzius: Die Korrektion der Unterweser (1898). suppl. B IV.: weekly average tide ranges 1879
50. ^telephonical advice by Mrs. Piechotta, head of department of hydrology, Nautic Administration for Bremen (WSA Bremen)
51. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Cuxhaven-Germany/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Cuxhaven|work=tide-forecast.com}}
52. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Hamburg-Germany/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Hamburg|work=tide-forecast.com}}
53. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.bsh.de/cgi-bin/gezeiten/was_tab.pl?ort=DE__508P&zone=Gesetzliche+Zeit+%B9&niveau=KN|archive-url=https://archive.is/20140217155834/http://www.bsh.de/cgi-bin/gezeiten/was_tab.pl?ort=DE__508P&zone=Gesetzliche+Zeit+%B9&niveau=KN|dead-url=yes|archive-date=2014-02-17|title=Gezeitenvorausberechnung|work=bsh.de}}
54. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Westerland-Germany/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Westerland|work=tide-forecast.com}}
55. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.bsh.de/cgi-bin/gezeiten/was_tab.pl?ort=DE__635P&zone=Gesetzliche%20Zeit&niveau=KN|title=Gezeitenvorausberechnung|work=bsh.de|access-date=17 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223104352/http://www.bsh.de/cgi-bin/gezeiten/was_tab.pl?ort=DE__635P&zone=Gesetzliche%20Zeit&niveau=KN|archive-date=23 February 2014|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
56. ^¹²³{{cite web|url=http://www.dmi.dk/en/hav/maalinger/tidal-tables/|title=Tidal tables|work=dmi.dk}}
57. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tide-forecast.com/locations/Esbjerg-Denmark/tides/latest|title=Tide Times and Tide Chart for Esbjerg, Denmark|work=tide-forecast.com}}
58. ^¹²Vannstand – Norwegian official maritime Information → English version {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429091718/http://vannstand.no/index.php/nb/english-section/tide-table |date=29 April 2015 }}
59. ^{{cite web| title = Development of the East Riding Coastline| url =http://www.eastriding.gov.uk/aspirelinks/coastal/1development.pdf| publisher=East Riding of Yorkshire Council| accessdate = 24 July 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070810055627/http://www.eastriding.gov.uk/aspirelinks/coastal/1development.pdf |archivedate = 10 August 2007}}
60. ^{{cite web| title = Holderness Coast United Kingdom| url =http://copranet.projects.eucc-d.de/files/000164_EUROSION_Holderness_coast.pdf| publisher=EUROSION Case Study| accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
61. ^¹{{Cite book |title = Overview of geography, hydrography and climate of the North Sea (Chapter II of the Quality Status Report). |publisher = Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR) |year = 2000 |url = http://www.ospar.org/eng/doc/pdfs/R2C2.pdf |accessdate = 4 December 2007 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070710023601/http://www.ospar.org/eng/doc/pdfs/R2C2.pdf |archivedate = 10 July 2007 |df = dmy-all}}
62. ^¹²{{cite book|last=Wefer|first=Gerold|author2=Wolfgang H. Berger |author3=K. E. Behre |author4=Eystein Jansen |title=Climate Development and History of the North Atlantic Realm: With 16 Tables|origyear=2002|url=https://books.google.com/?id=NACgnCN_jaEC&pg=PA308|accessdate=4 December 2008|year=2002|publisher= Springer|isbn=978-3-540-43201-2|pages=308–310}}
63. ^{{cite web|last= Oosthoek|first=K. Jan|publisher = Environmental History Resources|title =History of Dutch river flood defences|date =2006–2007|url =http://www.eh-resources.org/floods.html|accessdate = 24 July 2007 }}
64. ^{{cite web|publisher = Compare Infobase Limited|title =North Sea Protection Works – Seven Modern Wonders of World|date =2006–2007|url =http://www.allwondersoftheworld.com/seven-modern-wonders/north-sea-protection-works.html|accessdate = 24 July 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070525134637/http://www.allwondersoftheworld.com/seven-modern-wonders/north-sea-protection-works.html |archivedate = 25 May 2007}}
65. ^{{cite web|last= Rosenberg |first= Matt|work = About.com – Geography|title =Dykes of the Netherlands|date = 30 January 2007|url =http://geography.about.com/od/specificplacesofinterest/a/dykes.htm|accessdate =19 July 2007 }}
66. ^¹²{{cite web |title = Science around us: Flexible covering protects imperiled dikes – BASF – The Chemical Company – Corporate Website |publisher = BASF |url = http://www.basf.com/group/corporate/en/content/news-and-media-relations/science-around-us/imperiled-dikes/index |archive-url = https://archive.today/20130102043157/http://www.basf.com/group/corporate/en/content/news-and-media-relations/science-around-us/imperiled-dikes/index |dead-url = yes |archive-date = 2 January 2013 |accessdate = 16 January 2009}}
67. ^{{cite web |last = Peters |first = Karsten |author2 = Magnus Geduhn |author3 = Holger Schüttrumpf |author4 = Helmut Temmler |title = Impounded water in Sea Dikes |publisher = ICCE |date = 31 August – 5 September 2008 |url = http://icce2008.hamburg.baw.de/downloads/intern/Paper/BookOfAbstracts/0863_Peters.pdf |accessdate = 16 January 2009 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205005638/http://icce2008.hamburg.baw.de/downloads/intern/Paper/BookOfAbstracts/0863_Peters.pdf |archivedate = 5 February 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
68. ^{{cite web |title = Dune Grass Planting |work = A guide to managing coastal erosion in beach/dune systems – Summary 2 |publisher = Scottish Natural Heritage |year = 2000 |url = http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/heritagemanagement/erosion/appendix_1.2.shtml |accessdate = 2 November 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081212154705/http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/heritagemanagement/erosion/appendix_1.2.shtml |archive-date = 12 December 2008 |dead-url = yes |df = dmy-all}}
69. ^{{cite book|last=Ingham|first=J. K.|author2=John Christopher Wolverson Cope |author3=P. F. Rawson |title=Atlas of Palaeogeography and Lithofacies|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/?id=0I6BNSgx3_cC&pg=RA1-PA150|accessdate=15 December 2008|year=1999|publisher=Geological Society of London|isbn=978-1-86239-055-3|page=150|chapter=Quaternary}}
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73. ^{{cite book|last=Lamb|first=H. H.|title=Weather, Climate & Human Affairs: A Book of Essays and |url=https://books.google.com/?id=m5IOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA131&dq=North+Frisian+Flood+of+1981|format=Digitized online by Google books|accessdate=12 January 2009|edition= illustrated|year=1988|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780415006743|page=187}}
74. ^{{cite web|first= Axel |last=Bojanowski|publisher= Spiegel Online|title =Tidal Waves in Europe? Study Sees North Sea Tsunami Risk|date = 11 October 2006|url =http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,441819,00.html|accessdate = 24 July 2007}}
75. ^{{cite journal | first = Stein | last = Bondevik | author2 = Sue Dawson | author3 = Alastair Dawson | author4 = Øystein Lohne | date = 5 August 2003 | title = Record-breaking Height for 8000-Year-Old Tsunami in the North Atlantic | journal = Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union | volume = 84 | issue = 31 | pages = 289, 293 | url = http://www.ibg.uit.no/~stein/Bondevik-al-03-EOS.pdf | accessdate = 15 January 2007 | doi = 10.1029/2003EO310001 | bibcode = 2003EOSTr..84..289B | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070106061146/http://www.ibg.uit.no/~stein/Bondevik-al-03-EOS.pdf | archivedate = 6 January 2007 | df = dmy-all }}
76. ^¹{{Cite book |publisher = Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences |title = A tsunami in Belgium? |year = 2005 |url = http://www.naturalsciences.be/active/sciencenews/archive2005/tsunami |accessdate = 2 November 2008 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140425180447/http://www.naturalsciences.be/active/sciencenews/archive2005/tsunami |archivedate = 25 April 2014 |df = dmy-all}}
77. ^{{cite journal|last = Ziegler|first = P. A.|title =Geologic Evolution of North Sea and Its Tectonic Framework|journal=AAPG Bulletin|volume =59 |year=1975|doi = 10.1306/83D91F2E-16C7-11D7-8645000102C1865D }}
78. ^See Ziegler (1990) or Glennie (1998) for the development of the paleogeography around the North Sea area from the Jurassic onwards
79. ^{{cite web|last = Torsvik|first = Trond H.|author2=Daniel Carlos |author3=Jon L. Mosar |author4=Robin M. Cocks |author5=Tarjei N. Malme |title = Global reconstructions and North Atlantic paleogeography 440 Ma to Recen|date=November 2004|url = http://www.earthdynamics.org/torsvik/torsvik-papers/2002/2002-Torsvik-etal-BATLAS.pdf|accessdate =19 November 2008 }}
80. ^{{cite book|last=Smith |first= A. G.| title=Atlas of Mesozoic and Cenozoic Coastlines|publisher=Cambridge University Press| year=2004 | isbn=978-0-521-60287-7 | pages=27–38|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZSuuvlMuQaEC&pg=PA66&dq=%22north+sea%22+paleogeography|accessdate=24 November 2008 |format=Digitized by Google Books online}}
81. ^{{cite journal|last=Gibbard |first= P.| title=Palaeogeography: Europe cut adrift|journal=Nature | volume=448| pages=259–60| date=19 July 2007 | doi=10.1038/448259a|pmid=17637645|issue=7151|bibcode = 2007Natur.448..259G }} (Registration is required)
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87. ^¹²³⁴{{cite web| title = MarBEF Educational Pullout: The North Sea| work = Ecoserve| publisher = MarBEF Educational Pullout Issue 4| url = http://www.marbef.org/outreach/downloads/North%20sea%20pullout.pdf| accessdate = 12 January 2009}}
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100. ^{{cite web| title = Official Journal of the European Communities 28.12.2000 L 332/81| work = DIRECTIVE 2000/59/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 27 November 2000 on port reception facilities for ship-generated waste and cargo residues| url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2000:332:0081:0089:EN:PDF| accessdate = 12 January 2009}} "Member States have ratified Marpol 73/78".
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