“Nuremberg”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

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|pop_urban = {{formatnum: {{#expr: 498876 + 119808 + 105624 + 39546}} }} (includes Erlangen, Fürth and Schwabach)
|pop_metro = 3,500,000
|postal_code = 90000-90491
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|Gemeindeschlüssel = 09564000
|NUTS = DE254
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|website = [https://www.nuernberg.de/internet/portal_e/ nuernberg.de]
|mayor = Ulrich Maly
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|party = SPD
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Nuremberg ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|nj|ʊər|ə|m|b|ɜr|ɡ}}; {{lang-de|link=no|Nürnberg}}; {{IPA-de|ˈnʏɐ̯nbɛɐ̯k|pron|Nürnberg.ogg}}; Nuremberg dialect: {{lang|vmf|Närmberch}}; East Franconian: {{lang|vmf|Närrnberch}} or {{lang|vmf|Nämberch}}) is the second-largest city of the German federal state of Bavaria after its capital Munich, and its 511,628 (2016) inhabitants make it the 14th largest city in Germany. On the Pegnitz River (from its confluence with the Rednitz in Fürth onwards: Regnitz, a tributary of the River Main) and the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, it lies in the Bavarian administrative region of Middle Franconia, and is the largest city and the unofficial capital of Franconia. Nuremberg forms a continuous conurbation with the neighbouring cities of Fürth, Erlangen and Schwabach with a total population of 787,976 (2016), while the larger Nuremberg Metropolitan Region has approximately 3.5 million inhabitants. The city lies about {{convert|170|km|mi}} north of Munich. It is the largest city in the East Franconian dialect area (colloquially: "Franconian"; {{lang-de|link=no|Fränkisch}}).

There are many institutions of higher education in the city, most notably the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg ({{lang|de|Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg}}), with 39,780 students (2017) Bavaria's third and Germany's 11th largest university with campuses in Erlangen and Nuremberg and a university hospital in Erlangen (Universitätsklinikum Erlangen); {{lang|de|Technische Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm}}; and {{lang|de|Hochschule für Musik Nürnberg}}. Nuremberg Airport ({{lang|de|Flughafen Nürnberg „Albrecht Dürer“}}) is the second-busiest airport of Bavaria after Munich Airport, and the tenth-busiest airport of Germany.

Nuremberg was the site of major Nazi rallies, and it provided the site for the Nuremberg trials, which held to account many major Nazi officials.

History

Middle Ages

The first documentary mention of the city, in 1050, mentions Nuremberg as the location of an Imperial castle between the East Franks and the Bavarian March of the Nordgau.^[1] From 1050 to 1571 the city expanded and rose dramatically in importance due to its location on key trade-routes. King Conrad III (reigning as King of Germany from 1138 to 1152) established the Burgraviate of Nuremberg, with the first burgraves coming from the Austrian House of Raab. With the extinction of their male line around 1190, the last Raabs count's son-in-law, Frederick I from the House of Hohenzollern, inherited the burgraviate in 1192.

From the late 12th century to the Interregnum (1254–73), however, the power of the burgraves diminished as the Hohenstaufen emperors transferred most non-military powers to a castellan, with the city administration and the municipal courts handed over to an Imperial mayor ({{lang-de|link=no|Reichsschultheiß}}) from 1173/74.^[4]^[2] The strained relations between the burgraves and the castellans, with gradual transferral of powers to the latter in the late 14th and early 15th centuries, finally broke out into open enmity, which greatly influenced the history of the city.^[2]

Nuremberg is often referred to{{by whom?|date=January 2019}} as the "unofficial capital" of the Holy Roman Empire, particularly because the Imperial Diet (Reichstag) and courts met at Nuremberg Castle. The Diets of Nuremberg played an important role in the administration of the empire.{{cn|date=January 2019}} The increasing demands of the Imperial court and the increasing importance of the city attracted increased trade and commerce in Nuremberg. In 1219 Emperor Frederick II granted the {{lang|de| Großen Freiheitsbrief}} ('Great Letter of Freedom'), including town rights, Imperial immediacy ({{lang|de| Reichsfreiheit}}), the privilege to mint coins, and an independent customs policy - almost wholly removing the city from the purview of the burgraves.^[3]^[2] Nuremberg soon became, with Augsburg, one of the two great trade-centers on the route from Italy to Northern Europe.

In 1298 the Jews of the town were falsely accused{{by whom?|date=January 2019}} of having desecrated the host, and 698 of them were killed in one of the many Rintfleisch massacres. Behind the massacre of 1298 was also the desire to combine the northern and southern parts of the city,{{cn|date=January 2019}} which were divided by the Pegnitz. The Jews of the German lands suffered many massacres during the plague years of the mid-14th century.

In 1349 Nuremberg's Jews suffered a pogrom.^[4] They were burned at the stake or expelled,{{by whom?|date=January 2019}} and a marketplace was built over the former Jewish quarter.^[5] The plague returned to the city in 1405, 1435, 1437, 1482, 1494, 1520 and 1534.^[6]

The largest growth of Nuremberg occurred in the 14th century. Charles IV's Golden Bull of 1356, naming Nuremberg as the city where newly elected kings of Germany must hold their first Imperial Diet, made Nuremberg one of the three most important cities of the Empire.^[3] Charles was the patron of the Frauenkirche, built between 1352 and 1362 (the architect was likely Peter Parler), where the Imperial court worshipped during its stays in Nuremberg. The royal and Imperial connection grew stronger in 1423 when the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg granted the Imperial regalia to be kept permanently in Nuremberg, where they remained until 1796, when the advance of French troops required their removal to Regensburg and thence to Vienna.^[3]

In 1349 the members of the guilds unsuccessfully rebelled against the patricians in a {{lang|de| Handwerkeraufstand}} ('Craftsmen's Uprising'), supported by merchants and some by councillors, leading to a ban on any self-organisation of the artisans in the city, abolishing the guilds that were customary elsewhere in Europe; the unions were then dissolved, and the oligarchs remained in power while Nuremberg was a free city (until the early-19th century).^[3]^[2] Charles IV conferred upon the city the right to conclude alliances independently, thereby placing it upon a politically equal footing with the princes of the Empire.^[2] Frequent fights took place with the burgraves - without, however, inflicting lasting damage upon the city. After fire destroyed the castle in 1420 during a feud between Frederick IV (from 1417 Margrave of Brandenburg) and the duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, the city purchased the ruins and the forest belonging to the castle (1427), resulting in the city's total sovereignty within its borders.

Through these and other acquisitions the city accumulated considerable territory.^[2] The Hussite Wars (1419-1434), a recurrence of the Black Death in 1437, and the First Margrave War (1449-1450) led to a severe fall in population in the mid-15th century.^[2] Siding with Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria-Munich, in the Landshut War of Succession of 1503-1505 led the city to gain substantial territory, resulting in lands of {{convert|25|sqmi|1|abbr=on}}, making it one of the largest Imperial cities.^[2]

During the Middle Ages, Nuremberg fostered a rich, varied, and influential literary culture.^[7]

Early modern age

The cultural flowering of Nuremberg, in the 15th and 16th centuries, made it the centre of the German Renaissance. In 1525, Nuremberg accepted the Protestant Reformation, and in 1532, the Nuremberg Religious Peace was signed there, preventing war between Protestants and Catholics^[2] for 15 years.^[8] During the 1552 revolution against Charles V, Nuremberg tried to purchase its neutrality, but the city was attacked without a declaration of war and was forced into a disadvantageous peace.^[2] At the Peace of Augsburg, the possessions of the Protestants were confirmed by the Emperor, their religious privileges extended and their independence from the Bishop of Bamberg affirmed, while the 1520s' secularisation of the monasteries was also approved.^[2]

The state of affairs in the early 16th century, increased trade routes elsewhere and the ossification of the social hierarchy and legal structures contributed to the decline in trade.^[2] Frequent quartering of Imperial, Swedish and League soldiers, the financial costs of the war and the cessation of trade caused irreparable damage to the city and a near-halving of the population.^[2] In 1632, the city, occupied by the forces of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, was besieged by the army of Imperial general Albrecht von Wallenstein. The city declined after the war and recovered its importance only in the 19th century, when it grew as an industrial centre. Even after the Thirty Years' War, however, there was a late flowering of architecture and culture – secular Baroque architecture is exemplified in the layout of the civic gardens built outside the city walls, and in the Protestant city's rebuilding of St. Egidien church, destroyed by fire at the beginning of the 18th century, considered a significant contribution to the baroque church architecture of Middle Franconia.^[3]

After the Thirty Years' War, Nuremberg attempted to remain detached from external affairs, but contributions were demanded for the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War and restrictions of imports and exports deprived the city of many markets for its manufactures.^[2] The Bavarian elector, Charles Theodore, appropriated part of the land obtained by the city during the Landshut War of Succession, to which Bavaria had maintained its claim; Prussia also claimed part of the territory. Realising its weakness, the city asked to be incorporated into Prussia but Frederick William II refused, fearing to offend Austria, Russia and France.^[2] At the Imperial diet in 1803, the independence of Nuremberg was affirmed, but on the signing of the Confederation of the Rhine on 12 July 1806, it was agreed to hand the city over to Bavaria from 8 September, with Bavaria guaranteeing the amortisation of the city's 12.5 million guilder public debt.^[2]

After the Napoleonic Wars

After the fall of Napoleon, the city's trade and commerce revived; the skill of its inhabitants together with its favourable situation soon made the city prosperous, particularly after its public debt had been acknowledged as a part of the Bavarian national debt. Having been incorporated into a Catholic country, the city was compelled to refrain from further discrimination against Catholics, who had been excluded from the rights of citizenship. Catholic services had been celebrated in the city by the priests of the Teutonic Order, often under great difficulties. After their possessions had been confiscated by the Bavarian government in 1806, they were given the Frauenkirche on the Market in 1809; in 1810 the first Catholic parish was established, which in 1818 numbered 1,010 souls.^[2]{{unreliable source|date=June 2018}}

In 1817, the city was incorporated into the district of Rezatkreis (named for the river Franconian Rezat), which was renamed to Middle Franconia ({{lang-de|Mittelfranken}}) on 1 January 1838.^[2] The first German railway, the Bavarian Ludwigsbahn, from Nuremberg to nearby Fürth, was opened in 1835. The establishment of railways and the incorporation of Bavaria into Zollverein (the 19th-century German Customs Union), commerce and industry opened the way to greater prosperity.^[2] In 1852, there were 53,638 inhabitants: 46,441 Protestants and 6,616 Catholics. It subsequently grew to become the most important industrial city of Bavaria and one of the most prosperous towns of southern Germany but after the Austrian Prussian war it was given to prussia as part of their telegraph stations they had to give up^[2] In 1905, its population, including several incorporated suburbs, was 291,351: 86,943 Catholics, 196,913 Protestants, 3,738 Jews and 3,766 members of other creeds.^[2]

Nazi era

Nuremberg held great significance during the Nazi Germany era. Because of the city's relevance to the Holy Roman Empire and its position in the centre of Germany, the Nazi Party chose the city to be the site of huge Nazi Party conventions — the Nuremberg rallies. The rallies were held in 1927, 1929 and annually from 1933 through 1938. After Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933 the Nuremberg rallies became huge Nazi propaganda events, a centre of Nazi ideals. The 1934 rally was filmed by Leni Riefenstahl, and made into a propaganda film called Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will).

At the 1935 rally, Hitler specifically ordered the Reichstag to convene at Nuremberg to pass the Nuremberg Laws which revoked German citizenship for all Jews and other non-Aryans. A number of premises were constructed solely for these assemblies, some of which were not finished. Today many examples of Nazi architecture can still be seen in the city. The city was also the home of the Nazi propagandist Julius Streicher, the publisher of Der Stürmer.

During the Second World War, Nuremberg was the headquarters of Wehrkreis (military district) XIII, and an important site for military production, including aircraft, submarines and tank engines. A subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp was located here, and extensively used slave labour.^[9] The city was severely damaged in Allied strategic bombing from 1943 to 1945. On 29 March 1944, the RAF endured its heaviest losses in the bombing campaign of Germany. Out of more than 700 planes participating, 106 were shot down or crash-landed on the way home to their bases, and more than 700 men were missing, as many as 545 of them dead. More than 160 became prisoners of war.{{cn|date=June 2018}}

On 2 January 1945, the medieval city centre was systematically bombed by the Royal Air Force and the U.S. Army Air Forces and about ninety percent of it was destroyed in only one hour, with 1,800 residents killed and roughly 100,000 displaced. In February 1945, additional attacks followed. In total, about 6,000 Nuremberg residents are estimated to have been killed in air raids.

Nuremberg was a heavily fortified city that was captured in a fierce battle lasting from 17 to 21 April 1945 by the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division, 42nd Infantry Division and 45th Infantry Division, which fought house-to-house and street-by-street against determined German resistance, causing further urban devastation to the already bombed and shelled buildings.^[10] Despite this intense degree of destruction, the city was rebuilt after the war and was to some extent restored to its pre-war appearance, including the reconstruction of some of its medieval buildings.^[11] However, over half of the historic look of the center, and especially the northeastern half of the old Imperial Free City was lost forever.

Nuremberg trials

Between 1945 and 1946, German officials involved in war crimes and crimes against humanity were brought before an international tribunal in the Nuremberg trials. The Soviet Union had wanted these trials to take place in Berlin. However, Nuremberg was chosen as the site for the trials for specific reasons:

The same courtroom in Nuremberg was the venue of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals, organized by the United States as occupying power in the area.

Geography

Several old villages now belong to the city, for example Grossgründlach, Kraftshof, Thon, and Neunhof in the north-west; Ziegelstein in the northeast, Altenfurt and Fischbach in the south-east; and Katzwang, Kornburg in the south. Langwasser is a modern suburb.

Climate

Nurumber has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) with a certain humid continental influence (Dfb), categorized in the latter by the 0 °C isotherm.^[12] The city's climate is influenced by its inland position and higher altitude. Winters are changeable, with either mild or cold weather: the average temperature is around {{convert|-3|°C|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|4|°C|0|abbr=on}}, while summers are generally warm, mostly around {{convert|13|°C|0|abbr=on}} at night to {{convert|25|°C|0|abbr=on}} in the afternoon. Precipitation is evenly spread throughout the year, although February and April tend to be a bit drier whereas July tends to have more rainfall.^[40]

Demographics

Nuremberg has been a destination for immigrants. 39.5 % of the residents had an immigrant background in 2010 (counted with MigraPro).^[15]

Economy

Nuremberg for many people is still associated with its traditional gingerbread (Lebkuchen) products, sausages, and handmade toys. Pocket watches — Nuremberg eggs — were made here in the 16th century by Peter Henlein. In the 19th century Nuremberg became the "industrial heart" of Bavaria with companies such as Siemens and MAN establishing a strong base in the city. Nuremberg is still an important industrial centre with a strong standing in the markets of Central and Eastern Europe. Items manufactured in the area include electrical equipment, mechanical and optical products, motor vehicles, writing and drawing paraphernalia, stationery products and printed materials.

The city is also strong in the fields of automation, energy and medical technology. Siemens is still the largest industrial employer in the Nuremberg region but a good third of German market research agencies are also located in the city. The Nuremberg International Toy Fair is the largest of its kind in the world.^[17]

Culture

Nuremberg was an early centre of humanism, science, printing, and mechanical invention. The city contributed much to the science of astronomy. In 1471 Johannes Mueller of Königsberg (Bavaria), later called Regiomontanus, built an astronomical observatory in Nuremberg and published many important astronomical charts.

In 1515, Albrecht Dürer, a native of Nuremberg, created woodcuts of the first maps of the stars of the northern and southern hemispheres, producing the first printed star charts, which had been ordered by Johannes Stabius. Around 1515 Dürer also published the "Stabiussche Weltkarte", the first perspective drawing of the terrestrial globe.^[18] Perhaps most famously, the main part of Nicolaus Copernicus's work was published in Nuremberg in 1543.

Printers and publishers have a long history in Nuremberg. Many of these publishers worked with well-known artists of the day to produce books that could also be considered works of art. In 1470 Anton Koberger opened Europe's first print shop in Nuremberg. In 1493, he published the Nuremberg Chronicles, also known as the World Chronicles (Schedelsche Weltchronik), an illustrated history of the world from the creation to the present day. It was written in the local Franconian dialect by Hartmann Schedel and had illustrations by Michael Wohlgemuth, Wilhelm Pleydenwurff, and Albrecht Dürer. Others furthered geographical knowledge and travel by map making. Notable among these was navigator and geographer Martin Behaim, who made the first world globe.

Sculptors such as Veit Stoss, Adam Kraft and Peter Vischer are also associated with Nuremberg.

Composed of prosperous artisans, the guilds of the Meistersingers flourished here. Richard Wagner made their most famous member, Hans Sachs, the hero of his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. Baroque composer Johann Pachelbel was born here and was organist of St. Sebaldus Church.

The academy of fine arts situated in Nuremberg is the oldest art academy in central Europe and looks back to a tradition of 350 years of artistic education.

Nuremberg is also famous for its Christkindlesmarkt (Christmas market), which draws well over a million shoppers each year. The market is famous for its handmade ornaments and delicacies.

Museums

Performing arts

The Nuremberg State Theatre, founded in 1906, is dedicated to all types of opera, ballet and stage theatre. During the season 2009/2010, the theatre presented 651 performances for an audience of 240,000 persons.^[19] The State Philharmonic Nuremberg (Staatsphilharmonie Nürnberg) is the orchestra of the State Theatre. Its name was changed in 2011 from its previous name: The Nuremberg Philharmonic (Nürnberger Philharmoniker). It is the second-largest opera orchestra in Bavaria.^[20] Besides opera performances, it also presents its own subscription concert series in the Meistersingerhalle. Christof Perick was the principal conductor of the orchestra between 2006–2011. Marcus Bosch heads the orchestra since September 2011 .

The Nuremberg Symphony Orchestra (Nürnberger Symphoniker) performs around 100 concerts a year to a combined annual audience of more than 180,000.^[21] The regular subscription concert series are mostly performed in the Meistersingerhalle but other venues are used as well, including the new concert hall of the Kongresshalle and the Serenadenhof. Alexander Shelley has been the principal conductor of the orchestra since 2009.

The Nuremberg International Chamber Music Festival (Internationales Kammermusikfestival Nürnberg) takes place in early September each year, and in 2011 celebrated its tenth anniversary. Concerts take place around the city; opening and closing events are held in the medieval Burg. The Bardentreffen, an annual folk festival in Nuremberg, has been deemed the largest world music festival in Germany and takes place since 1976. 2014 the Bardentreffen starred 368 artists from 31 nations.^[22]

Cuisine

Nuremberg is known for Nürnberger Bratwurst, which is shorter and thinner than other bratwurst sausages.

Another Nuremberg speciality is Nürnberger Lebkuchen, a kind of gingerbread eaten mainly around Christmas time.

Education

Nuremberg offers 51 public and 6 private elementary schools in nearly all of its districts. Secondary education is offered at 23 Mittelschulen, 12 Realschulen, and 17 Gymnasien (state, city, church, and privately owned). There are also several other providers of secondary education such as Berufsschule, Berufsfachschule, Wirtschaftsschule etc.^[23]

Higher education

Nuremberg hosts the joint university Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, two Fachhochschulen (Technische Hochschule Nürnberg and Evangelische Hochschule Nürnberg), an art school (Akademie der Bildenden Künste Nürnberg), and a music conservatoire (Hochschule für Musik Nürnberg).^[24] There are also private schools such as the Akademie Deutsche POP Nürnberg offering higher education.^[25]

Main sights

Transport

The city's location next to numerous highways, railways, and a waterway has contributed to its rising importance for trade with Eastern Europe.

Railways

Nürnberg Hauptbahnhof is a stop for IC and ICE trains on the German long-distance railway network. The Nuremberg–Ingolstadt–Munich high-speed line with {{convert|300|km/h|0|abbr=on}} operation opened 28 May 2006, and was fully integrated into the rail schedule on 10 December 2006. Travel times to Munich have been reduced to as little as one hour. The Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway opened in December 2017.

City and regional transport

The Nuremberg tramway network was opened in 1881. {{As of|2008}}, it extended a total length of {{convert|36|km|mi|abbr=on}}, had six lines, and carried 39.152 million passengers annually. The first segment of the Nuremberg U-Bahn metro system was opened in 1972. Nuremberg's trams, buses and metro system are operated by the [https://web.archive.org/web/20070110224807/http://en.vag.de/ VAG Nürnberg] (Verkehrsaktiengesellschaft Nürnberg or Nuremberg Transport Corporation), itself a member of the VGN (Verkehrsverbund Grossraum Nürnberg or Greater Nuremberg Transport Network).

There is also a Nuremberg S-Bahn suburban metro railway and a regional train network, both centred on Nürnberg Hauptbahnhof.

Since 2008, Nuremberg has had the first U-Bahn in Germany (U2/U21 and U3) that works without a driver. It also was the first subway system worldwide in which both driver-operated trains and computer-controlled trains shared tracks.

Motorways

Nuremberg is located at the junction of several important Autobahn routes. The A3 (Netherlands–Frankfurt–Würzburg–Vienna) passes in a south-easterly direction along the north-east of the city. The A9 (Berlin–Munich) passes in a north–south direction on the east of the city. The A6 (France–Saarbrücken–Prague) passes in an east–west direction to the south of the city. Finally, the A73 begins in the south-east of Nuremberg and travels north-west through the city before continuing towards Fürth and Bamberg.

Airport

Nuremberg Airport has flights to major German cities and many European destinations. The largest operators are currently Eurowings, TUI fly Deutschland and SunExpress Deutschland, while the low-cost Ryanair and Wizz Air companies connect the city to various European centres. A significant amount of the airport's traffic flies to and from mainly touristic destinations during the peak winter season. The airport (Flughafen) is the terminus of subway line 2; it is the only airport in Germany served by a subway.

Canals

Sport

Football

1. FC Nürnberg, known locally as Der Club (English: "The Club"), was founded in 1900 and currently plays in the Bundesliga. The official colours of the association are red and white, but the traditional colours are red and black. The current chairmen are Andreas Bornemann and Michael Meeske. They play in Max-Morlock-Stadion which was refurbished for the 2006 FIFA World Cup and accommodates 50,000 spectators.

Basketball

The SELLBYTEL Baskets Nürnberg played in the Basketball Bundesliga from 2005 to 2007. Since then, teams from Nuremberg have attempted to return to Germany's elite league. The recently founded Nürnberg Falcons BC have already established themselves as one of the main teams in Germany's second division ProA and aim to take on the heritage of the SELLBYTEL Baskets Nürnberg. The Falcons play their home games at the Halle im Berufsbildungszentrum (BBZ).

International relations

Twin Towns – Sister Cities

Associated cities

Apart from the official twin towns (sister cities), there are a number with which Nuremberg maintains "cordial relations":^[35]

Cooperation

Nuremberg also engages in cooperation with various other cities internationally:^[38]{{Citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Notable residents

See also

Notes and references

Notes

1. ^Compare: {{de icon}} Nürnberg, Reichsstadt: Politische und soziale Entwicklung (Political and Social Development of the Imperial City of Nuremberg), Historisches Lexikon Bayerns: "Nürnberg ist erstmals 1050 als Reichsburg inmitten eines großen Reichsgutkomplexes schriftlich bezeugt. [...] Die Stadt Nürnberg entstand um die Wende zum 11. Jahrhundert in Anlehnung an eine 1050 erstmals erwähnte Reichsburg inmitten eines ausgedehnten Reichsgutkomplexes in Ostfranken und dem bayerischen Nordgau." [The first written attestation of Nuremberg occurs in 1050 as an Imperial castle in the middle of an extensive complex of Imperial property. [...] The city of Nuremberg originated about the turn of the 11th century inconnection with an Imperial castle (first mentioned in 1050) in the centre of an expansive complex of Imperial property in East Franconia and in the Bavarian Nordgau.]
2. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia |id=11168a |title= Nuremberg }}
3. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{de icon}} Nürnberg, Reichsstadt: Politische und soziale Entwicklung (Political and Social Development of the Imperial City of Nuremberg), Historisches Lexikon Bayerns
4. ^"Black Death". JewishEncyclopedia.com
5. ^Cities and People: A Social and Architectural History, Mark Girouard, Yale University Press, 1985, p.69
6. ^Jerry Stannard, Katherine E. Stannard, Richard Kay (1999). Herbs and herbalism in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|0-86078-774-5}}
7. ^{{cite journal |last1= Sobecki |first1= Sebastian |title= Nuremberg |journal= Europe: A Literary History, 1348-1418, ed. David Wallace |date= 2016 |pages= 566–581 |url= https://global.oup.com/academic/product/europe-9780198735359?cc=nl&lang=en& |publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford}}
8. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=H3NBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA351&lpg=PA351&dq=%22The+formation+of+the+Smalcald+League+in+1531%22&source=bl&ots=_eyih7253z&sig=ACfU3U0d5mrlBetn_sC0gsIjJnq_5jdScQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjR4pH2vPjfAhUMtIMKHZ4sCysQ6AEwAHoECAAQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22The%20formation%20of%20the%20Smalcald%20League%20in%201531%22&f=false article on the Nuremberg Religious Peace], page 351 of the 1899 Lutheran Cyclopedia
9. ^{{cite web |last=Keeffe |first=Christine O|url=http://www.tartanplace.com/tartanhistory/concentrationcamps.html |title=Concentration Camps List |publisher=Tartanplace.com |accessdate=12 January 2015}}
10. ^Stanton, Shelby, World War II Order of Battle: An Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from Battalion through Division, 1939–1946, Stackpole Books (Revised Edition 2006), p. 90, 129, 135
11. ^Neil Gregor, Haunted City. Nuremberg and the Nazi Past (New Haven, 2008)
12. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s=36701&cityname=Nuremberg,+Germany|title=Nuremberg, Germany Köppen Climate Classification (Weatherbase)|website=Weatherbase|access-date=2019-02-03}}
13. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.dwd.de/bvbw/appmanager/bvbw/dwdwwwDesktop?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=_dwdwww_klima_umwelt_klimadaten_deutschland&T82002gsbDocumentPath=Navigation%2FOeffentlichkeit%2FKlima__Umwelt%2FKlimadaten%2Fkldaten__kostenfrei%2Fausgabe__monatswerte__node.html%3F__nnn%3Dtrue |title=Ausgabe der Klimadaten: Monatswerte |publisher=Dwd.de |accessdate=12 January 2015}}
14. ^{{cite web|url=http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/listenormale-1981-2010-2-p5.php|title=German climate normals 1981-2010|language=fr|publisher=Météo Climat|accessdate=16 January 2019}}
15. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.nuernberg.de/imperia/md/statistik/dokumente/migration/datenblatt/2010/seite_001-019_migrationshintergrund_n1_2011.pdf |title=Amt für Stadtforschung und Statistik für Nürnberg und Fürth: Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund in Nürnberg |publisher=Destatis.de |date=November 2011 |accessdate=30 April 2017}}
16. ^{{cite web |title=Bevölkerungsstand |url=https://www.nuernberg.de/internet/statistik/sta_1068.html |website=Stadtforschung und Statistik für Nürnberg und Fürth |accessdate=20 June 2018}}
17. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.spielwarenmesse.de/for-visitors/10-reasons/language/1/|title=10 Reasons for visiting|date=2019-02-06|website=Spielwarenmesse Nürnberg|language=en|access-date=2019-03-25}}
18. ^{{cite book | first = Wilhelm | last = Waetzoldt | title = Dürer und seine Zeit | date = 1935 | publisher = Phaedon | place = Vienna | pages = 306–309}}
19. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mittelbayerische.de/nachrichten/oberpfalz-bayern/artikel/mehr_besucher_im_staatstheater/596528/mehr_besucher_im_staatstheater.html|title=Audience of the Staatstheater (Mehr Besucher im Staatstheater Nürnberg)|publisher=Mittelbayerische.de|year=2011|accessdate=5 March 2011|language=de}}
20. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.staatstheater-nuernberg.de/inhalte/index.php?menu=401|title=Die Staatsphilharmonie Nürnberg|year=2012|publisher=Staatstheater-nuernberg.de|accessdate=11 February 2012|language=de}}
21. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.kulturfreunde-bayreuth.de/info_konzert_10.htm|title=Nuremberg Symphony Orchestra, audience and concerts stats.|year=2011|accessdate=3 March 2011|language=de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321191012/http://www.kulturfreunde-bayreuth.de/info_konzert_10.htm|archive-date=21 March 2012|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
22. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.frankenfernsehen.tv/krieg-und-frieden-liedermacher-pippo-pollina-eroeffnet-bardentreffen-56711/|title="Krieg und Frieden" – Pippo Pollina eröffnet Bardentreffen|publisher=Frankenfernsehen.tv|accessdate=12 January 2015}}
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24. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.nuernberg.de/imperia/md/statistik/dokumente/veroeffentlichungen/berichte/niz/nuernberg_in_zahlen_2016.pdf|title=Nürnberg in Zahlen|last=Stadt Nürnberg|first=|date=1 May 2016|website=nuernberg.de|access-date=14 September 2017}}
25. ^{{Cite web|url=http://deutsche-pop.com/de/nuernberg|title=Deutsche Pop Nürnberg|last=|first=|date=14 September 2017|website=|access-date=14 September 2017}}
26. ^{{cite web| url = https://www.nuernberg.de/internet/international/partnerstaedte.html| title = Partnerstädte| accessdate =31 May 2016| work = Official Web site of the city of Nuremberg| publisher = Nuremberg Office for International Relations|language=de}}
27. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.nice.fr/Collectivites/La-municipalite/Villes-jumelees-avec-la-Ville-de-Nice | title = Villes jumelées avec la Ville de Nice | accessdate = 24 June 2013 | publisher = Ville de Nice | language = French | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20121029114949/http://nice.fr/Collectivites/La-municipalite/Villes-jumelees-avec-la-Ville-de-Nice | archivedate = 29 October 2012 | df = dmy-all }}
28. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.krakow.pl/otwarty_na_swiat/2531,kat,0,6,miasta_partnerskie.html|title=Kraków - Miasta Bliźniacze|accessdate =10 August 2013|work=Miejska Platforma Internetowa Magiczny Kraków|language=Polish|trans-title=Kraków - Twin Cities|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702022307/http://www.krakow.pl/otwarty_na_swiat/2531,kat,0,6,miasta_partnerskie.html|archivedate=2 July 2013}}
29. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.skopje.gov.mk/EN/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=0&tabid=69|title=Skopje - Twin towns & Sister cities|accessdate=4 November 2013|work=Official portal of City of Skopje|publisher=© Grad Skopje - 2006 - 2013, www.skopje.gov.mk|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024131101/http://www.skopje.gov.mk/EN/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=0&tabid=69|archivedate=24 October 2013}}
30. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nuernberg.de/internet/international/skopje_partnerschaft.html|title=Skopje – Die Partnerschaft|publisher = Town of Nürnberg|accessdate=10 June 2012|language=German}}
31. ^{{cite web|url=http://zahranicnivztahy.praha.eu/jnp/cz/partnerska_mesta/index.html#|title=Partnerská města HMP|accessdate=5 August 2013|date=18 July 2013|work = Portál „Zahraniční vztahy“ [Portal "Foreign Affairs"]|language=Czech|trans-title=Prague - Twin Cities HMP|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625205859/http://zahranicnivztahy.praha.eu/jnp/cz/partnerska_mesta/index.html|archivedate =25 June 2013}}
32. ^ {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140719025116/http://www.szfao.gov.cn/zwgk/wsz/201103/t20110322_1645217.htm |date=19 July 2014 }}
33. ^ {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113092638/http://www.szfao.gov.cn/ygwl/yxyc/ycgy/201101/t20110120_1631663.htm |date=13 November 2013 }}
34. ^ {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112101846/http://www.szfao.gov.cn/ygwl/yxyc/yhjl/ |date=12 November 2014 }}
35. ^{{cite web| url = http://www.nuernberg.de/internet/international/befreundete_kommunen.html| title = Befreundete Kommunen | accessdate =31 May 2016| work = Official Web site of the city of Nuremberg| publisher = Nuremberg Office for International Relations|language=de}}
36. ^Not according Verona's official listing.
37. ^{{cite web |url=http://portale.comune.verona.it/nqcontent.cfm?a_id=5485 |title=Gemellaggi |publisher=Comune di Verona |type=official site |language=it |date= |location=Verona, Italy |accessdate=2017-04-07}}
38. ^{{cite web| url = https://www.nuernberg.de/internet/international/kooperationen.html| title = Befreundete Kommunen | accessdate =31 May 2016| work = Official Web site of the city of Nuremberg| publisher = Nuremberg Office for International Relations|language=de}}
39. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.biographies.net/bio/m/0g9zxn3|title=Biography of Peter Angermann|publisher=Biographies.net|accessdate=12 January 2015}}
40. ^{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/arbel-chaya|title=Chaya Arbel|publisher=Jwa.org|accessdate=12 January 2015}}
41. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituaries-heinz-bernard-1568974.html|title=OBITUARIES: Heinz Bernard|work=The Independent|accessdate=12 January 2015}}
42. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.thebookseller.com/news/peter-owen-dies-330731|title=Peter Owen dies - The Bookseller|author=|date=|website=www.thebookseller.com}}
43. ^{{cite web|url=http://home.infionline.net/~ddisse/pirckhei.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403181123/http://home.infionline.net/~ddisse/pirckhei.html|title=Caritas Pirckheimer|archivedate=3 April 2013|publisher=Home.infionline.net|accessdate=12 January 2015}}