“Old age”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Old age refers to ages nearing or surpassing the life expectancy of human beings, and is thus the end of the human life cycle. Terms and euphemisms include old people, the elderly (worldwide usage), seniors (American usage), senior citizens (British and American usages), older adults (in the social sciences^[1]), and the elders (in many cultures—including the cultures of aboriginal people).

Old people often have limited regenerative abilities and are more susceptible to disease, syndromes, injuries and sickness than younger adults. The organic process of ageing is called senescence,^[2] the medical study of the aging process is called gerontology,^[3] and the study of diseases that afflict the elderly is called geriatrics.^[4] The elderly also face other social issues around retirement, loneliness, and ageism.^[5]

Old people will also have a lot of symptoms. For example, healthy bones are critical to senior health. As you age, your body begins to absorb old bone tissue faster than new bone tissue can be created, and your bones tend to become thinner and weaker. This leads to a condition known as osteoporosis, a disease in which bones become very fragile and can easily break during a fall or even when you're making everyday movements. More than 1.5 million fractures occur every year due to osteoporosis.^[6]

Old age is not a definite biological stage, as the chronological age denoted as "old age" varies culturally and historically.^[7]

In 2011, the United Nations proposed a human rights convention that would specifically protect older persons.^[8]

Definitions

Definitions of old age include official definitions, sub-group definitions, and four dimensions as follows.

Official definitions

Old age comprises "the later part of life; the period of life after youth and middle age . . ., usually with reference to deterioration".^[9] At what age old age begins cannot be universally defined because it differs according to the context. The United Nations has agreed that 65+ years may be usually denoted as old age^[10] and this is the first attempt at an international definition of old age. However, for its study of old age in Africa, the World Health Organization (WHO) set 55 as the beginning of old age. At the same time, the WHO recognized that the developing world often defines old age, not by years, but by new roles, loss of previous roles, or inability to make active contributions to society.^[11]

Most developed Western countries set the age of 60 to 65 for retirement. Being 60–65 years old is usually a requirement for becoming eligible for senior social programs.^[12] However, various countries and societies consider the onset of old age as anywhere from the mid-40s to the 70s.^[13] The definitions of old age continue to change especially as life expectancy in developed countries has risen to beyond 80 years old.^[14] In October 2016, a paper published in the science journal Nature presented the conclusion that the maximum human lifespan is an average age of 115, with an absolute upper limit of 125 years.^[15] However, the authors' methods and conclusions drew criticism from the scientific community, who concluded that the study was flawed.^[16]

Sub-group definitions{{anchor|Third age}}

Gerontologists have recognized the very different conditions that people experience as they grow older within the years defined as old age. In developed countries, most people in their 60s and early 70s are still fit, active, and able to care for themselves.^[17] However, after 75, they will become increasingly frail, a condition marked by serious mental and physical debilitation.^[18]

Therefore, rather than lumping together all people who have been defined as old, some gerontologists have recognized the diversity of old age by defining sub-groups. One study distinguishes the young old (60 to 69), the middle old (70 to 79), and the very old (80+).^[19] Another study's sub-grouping is young-old (65 to 74), middle-old (75–84), and oldest-old (85+).^[20] A third sub-grouping is "young old" (65–74), "old" (74–84), and "old-old" (85+).^[21] Delineating sub-groups in the 65+ population enables a more accurate portrayal of significant life changes.^[22]

Two British scholars, Paul Higgs and Chris Gilleard, have added a "fourth age" sub-group. In British English, the "third age" is "the period in life of active retirement, following middle age".^[23] Higgs and Gilleard describe the fourth age as "an arena of inactive, unhealthy, unproductive, and ultimately unsuccessful ageing".^[24]

Dimensions

Senior citizen

Senior citizen is a common euphemism for an old person used in American English, and sometimes in British English. It implies that the person being referred to is retired.^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31] This in turn usually implies that the person is over the retirement age, which varies according to country. Synonyms include old age pensioner or pensioner in British English, and retiree and senior in American English. Some dictionaries describe widespread use of "senior citizen" for people over the age of 65.^[32]

When defined in an official context, senior citizen is often used for legal or policy-related reasons in determining who is eligible for certain benefits available to the age group.

It is used in general usage instead of traditional terms such as old person, old-age pensioner, or elderly as a courtesy and to signify continuing relevance of and respect for this population group as "citizens" of society, of senior rank.^[33]

The term was apparently coined in 1938 during a political campaign.^[34] Famed caricaturist Al Hirschfeld claimed on several occasion that his father Isaac Hirschfeld invented the term 'senior citizen'.^[35]^[36]^[37] It has come into widespread use in recent decades in legislation, commerce, and common speech. Especially in less formal contexts, it is often abbreviated as "senior(s)", which is also used as an adjective.

In commerce, some businesses offer customers of a certain age a "senior discount". The age at which these discounts are available varies between 55, 60, 62 or 65, and other criteria may also apply. Sometimes a special "senior discount card" or other proof of age needs to be obtained and produced to show entitlement.

Age qualifications

The age which qualifies for senior citizen status varies widely. In governmental contexts, it is usually associated with an age at which pensions or medical benefits for the elderly become available. In commercial contexts, where it may serve as a marketing device to attract customers, the age is often significantly lower.^[38]

In the United States, the standard retirement age is currently 66 (gradually increasing to 67).^[39]

In Canada, the OAS (Old Age Security) pension is available at 65 (the Conservative government of Stephen Harper had planned to gradually increase the age of eligibility to 67, starting in the years 2023–2029, although the Liberal government of Justin Trudeau is considering leaving it at 65),^[40] and the CPP (Canada Pension Plan) as early as age 60.

The AARP allows couples in which one spouse has reached the age of 50 to join, regardless of the age of the other spouse.

Signs

The distinguishing characteristics of old age are both physical and mental.^[41] The marks of old age are so unlike the marks of middle age that legal scholar Richard Posner suggests that, as an individual transitions into old age, he/she can be thought of as different persons "time-sharing" the same identity.^[42]

These marks do not occur at the same chronological age for everyone. Also, they occur at different rates and order for different people.^[27] Marks of old age can easily vary between people of the same chronological age.^[43]

A basic mark of old age that affects both body and mind is "slowness of behavior".^[44] This "slowing down principle" finds a correlation between advancing age and slowness of reaction and physical and mental task performance.^[45] However, studies from Buffalo University and Northwestern University have shown that the elderly are a happier age group than their younger counterparts.^[46]

Physical

Mental

Perceptions

From a middle-age perspective

Many books by middle-age writers depict their perceptions of old people.^[100] One writer notices the change in his parents: they move slowly, they have lost strength, they repeat stories, their minds wander, and they fret.^[101] Another writer sees her aged parents and is bewildered: they refuse to follow her advice, they are obsessed with the past, they avoid risk, they live at a "glacial pace".^[102]

Other writers treat the perceptions of middle-age people regarding their own old age. In her The Denial of Aging, Dr. Muriel R. Gillick, a baby boomer, accuses her contemporaries of believing that by proper exercise and diet they can avoid the scourges of old age and proceed from middle age to death.^[103] Studies find that many people in the 55–75 range can postpone morbidity by practicing healthy lifestyles. These discourses take part in a general idea of successful ageing. However, at about age 80, all people experience similar morbidity.^[104] Even with healthy lifestyles, most 85+ people will undergo extended "frailty and disability".^[105]

From an old-age perspective

Early old age is a pleasant time; children are grown, retirement from work, time to pursue interests.^[106] Many people are also willing to get involved in community and activist organizations to promote their well-being. In contrast, perceptions of old age by writers 80+ years old (old age in the real meaning of the term^[117]) tend to be negative.

Minois comments that the scribe's "cry shows that nothing has changed in the drama of decrepitude between the age of the Pharaoh and the atomic age" and "expresses all the anguish of old people in the past and the present".^[109]

Writing at the age of 87, Mary C. Morrison delineates the heroism required by old age: to live through the disintegration of one's own body or that of someone you love. Morrison concludes, "old age is not for the fainthearted."^[111] In the book Life Beyond 85 Years, the 150 interviewees had to cope with physical and mental debilitation and with losses of loved ones. One interviewee described living in old age as "pure hell".^[112]

From society's perspective

Based on his survey of old age in history, Georges Minois concludes that "it is clear that always and everywhere youth has been preferred to old age." In Western thought, "old age is an evil, an infirmity and a dreary time of preparation for death." Furthermore, death is often preferred over "decrepitude, because death means deliverance".^[113]

"The problem of the ambiguity of old age has . . . been with us since the stage of primitive society; it was both the source of wisdom and of infirmity, experience and decrepitude, of prestige and suffering."^[114]

In the Classical period of Greek and Roman cultures, old age was denigrated as a time of "decline and decrepitude".^[115] "Beauty and strength" were esteemed and old age was viewed as defiling and ugly. Old age was reckoned as one of the unanswerable "great mysteries" along with evil, pain, and suffering. "Decrepitude, which shrivels heroes, seemed worse than death."^[116]

Historical periods reveal a mixed picture of the "position and status" of old people, but there has never been a "golden age of aging".^[118] Studies have disproved the popular belief that in the past old people were venerated by society and cared for by their families.^[119] Veneration for and antagonism toward the aged have coexisted in complex relationships throughout history.^[120] "Old people were respected or despised, honoured or put to death according to circumstance."^[114]

In ancient times, although some strong and healthy people lived until they were over 70 most died before they were 50. The general understanding is that those who lived into their 40's were treated with respect and awe. In contrast, those who were frail were seen as a burden and ignored or in extreme cases killed.^[118]^[121] People were defined as "old" because of their inability to perform useful tasks rather than their years.^[122]

"The Olympians did not like old people." Their youth rebelled against the old, driving them off or killing them.^[123]

Although he was skeptical of the gods, Aristotle concurred in the dislike of old people. In his Ethics, he wrote that "old people are miserly; they do not acknowledge disinterested friendship; only seeking for what can satisfy their selfish needs."^[124]

The 16th-century Utopians, Thomas More and Antonio de Guevara, allowed no decrepit old people in their fictional lands.^[125]

For Thomas More, on the island of Utopia, when people are so old as to have "out-lived themselves" and are terminally ill, in pain, and a burden to everyone, the priests exhort them about choosing to die. The priests assure them that "they shall be happy after death." If they choose to die, they end their lives by starvation or by taking opium.^[126]

In the Modern period, the "cultural status" of old people has declined in many cultures.^[117] Joan Erikson observed that "aged individuals are often ostracized, neglected, and overlooked; elders are seen no longer as bearers of wisdom but as embodiments of shame."^[128]

Research on age-related attitudes consistently finds that negative attitudes exceed positive attitudes toward old people because of their looks and behavior.^[129] In his study Aging and Old Age, Posner discovers "resentment and disdain of older people" in American society.^[130]

Harvard University's implicit-association test measures implicit "attitudes and beliefs" about Young vis a vis Old.^[131] Blind Spot: Hidden Biases of Good People, a book about the test, reports that 80% of Americans have an "automatic preference for the young over old" and that attitude is true worldwide. The young are "consistent in their negative attitude" toward the old.^[132] Ageism documents that Americans generally have "little tolerance for older persons and very few reservations about harboring negative attitudes" about them.^[133]

In 2014, a documentary film called The Age of Love used humor and poignant adventures of 30 seniors who attend a speed dating event for 70- to 90-year-olds, and discovered how the search for romance changes; or does not change; from a childhood sweetheart to older age.^[135]

From simulated perspective

Simone de Beauvoir wrote that "there is one form of experience that belongs only to those that are old – that of old age itself."^[136] Nevertheless, simulations of old age attempt to help younger people gain some understanding.

Texas A&M University offers a plan for an "Aging Simulation" workshop.^[137] The workshop is adapted from Sensitizing People to the Processes of Aging.^[138]

The Macklin Intergenerational Institute conducts Xtreme Aging workshops, as depicted in The New York Times.^[139] A condensed version was presented on

NBC's Today Show and is available online.^[140] One exercise was to lay out 3 sets of 5 slips of paper. On set #1, write your 5 most enjoyed activities; on set #2, write your 5 most valued possessions; on set #3, write your 5 most loved people. Then "lose" them one by one, trying to feel each loss, until you have lost them all as happens in old age.

Frailty

Most people in the age range of 60–80 (the years of retirement and early old age), enjoy rich possibilities for a full life, but the condition of frailty distinguished by "bodily failure" and greater dependence becomes increasingly common after that.^[142] In the United States, hospital discharge data from 2003 to 2011 shows that injury was the most common reason for hospitalization among patients aged 65+.^[143]

A group of geriatricians proposed a general definition of frailty as "a physical state of increased vulnerability to stressors^[145] that results from decreased reserves and disregulation^[146] in multiple physiological systems".^[147]

but different definitions of frailty produce diverse assessments of prevalence. One study placed the incidence of frailty for ages 65+ at 10.7%.^[148] Another study placed the incidence of frailty in age 65+ population at 22% for women and 15% for men.^[149] A Canadian study illustrated how frailty increases with age and calculated the prevalence for 65+ as 22.4% and for 85+ as 43.7%.^[150]

A worldwide study of "patterns of frailty" based on data from 20 nations found (a) a consistent correlation between frailty and age, (b) a higher frequency among women, and (c) more frailty in wealthier nations where greater support and medical care increases longevity.^[151]

In Norway, a 20-year longitudinal study of 400 people found that bodily failure and greater dependence became prevalent in the 80+ years. The study calls these years the "fourth age" or "old age in the real meaning of the term". Similarly, the "Berlin Aging Study" rated over-all functionality on four levels: good, medium, poor, and very poor. People in their 70s were mostly rated good. In the 80–90 year range, the four levels of functionality were divided equally. By the 90–100 year range, 60% would be considered frail because of very poor functionality and only 5% still possessed good functionality.^[142]

In the United States, the 85+ age group is the fastest growing, a group that is almost sure to face the "inevitable decrepitude" of survivors.^[152] (Frailty and decrepitude are synonyms.^[153])

Markers

Three unique markers of frailty have been proposed: (a) loss of any notion of invincibility, (b) loss of ability to do things essential to one's care, and (c) loss of possibility for a subsequent life stage.^[154]

Old age survivors on-average deteriorate from agility in their 65–80s to a period of frailty preceding death. This deterioration is gradual for some and precipitous for others. Frailty is marked by an array of chronic physical and mental problems which means that frailty is not treatable as a specific disease. These problems coupled with increased dependency in the basic activities of daily living (ADLs) required for personal care add emotional problems: depression and anxiety.^[155] In sum, frailty has been depicted as a group of "complex issues," distinct but "causally interconnected," that often include "comorbid diseases",^[156] progressive weakness, stress, exhaustion, and depression.^[157]

Misconceptions

Johnson and Barer did a pioneering study of Life Beyond 85 Years by interviews over a six-year period. In talking with 85-year-olds and older, they found some popular conceptions about old age to be erroneous. Such erroneous conceptions include (1) people in old age have at least one family member for support, (2) old age well-being requires social activity, and (3) "successful adaptation" to age-related changes demands a continuity of self-concept. In their interviews, Johnson and Barer found that 24% of the 85+ had no face-to-face family relationships; many have outlived their families. Second, that contrary to popular notions, the interviews revealed that the reduced activity and socializing of the over-85s does not harm their well-being; they "welcome increased detachment". Third, rather than a continuity of self-concept, as the interviewees faced new situations they changed their "cognitive and emotional processes" and reconstituted their "self–representation".^[158]

Care and costs

Frail people require a high level of care. Medical advances have made it possible to "postpone death" for years. This added time costs many frail people "prolonged sickness, dependence, pain, and suffering".^[159]

According to a study by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the rate of emergency department visits was consistently highest among patients ages 85 years and older in 2006–2011 in the United States.^[160] Additionally, patients aged 65+ had the highest percentage of hospital stays for adults with multiple chronic conditions but the second highest percentage of hospital costs in 2003–2014.^[161]

These final years are also costly in economic terms.^[162] One out of every four Medicare dollars is spent on the frail in their last year of life . . . in attempts to postpone death.^[163]

Medical treatments in the final days are not only economically costly, they are often unnecessary, even harmful.^[164] Nortin Hadler, M.D. warns against the tendency to medicalize and overtreat the frail.^[165] In her Choosing Medical Care in Old Age, Michael R. Gillick M.D. argues that appropriate medical treatment for the frail is not the same as for the robust. The frail are vulnerable to "being tipped over" by any physical stress put on the system such as medical interventions.^[166]

Death

Old age, death, and frailty are linked because approximately half the deaths in old age are preceded by months or years of frailty.^[167]

Older Adults' Views on Death is based on interviews with 109 people in the 70–90 age range, with a mean age of 80.7.

Almost 20% of the people wanted to use whatever treatment that might postpone death. About the same number said that, given a terminal illness, they would choose assisted suicide. Roughly half chose doing nothing except live day by day until death comes naturally without medical or other intervention designed to prolong life. This choice was coupled with a desire to receive palliative care if needed.^[168]

About half of older adults suffer multimorbidity, that is, they have three or more chronic conditions.^[169] Medical advances have made it possible to "postpone death," but in many cases this postponement adds "prolonged sickness, dependence, pain, and suffering," a time that is costly in social, psychological, and economic terms.^[170]

The longitudinal interviews of 150 age 85+ people summarized in Life Beyond 85 Years found "progressive terminal decline" in the year prior to death: constant fatigue, much sleep, detachment from people, things, and activities, simplified lives. Most of the interviewees did not fear death; some would welcome it. One person said, "Living this long is pure hell."

However, nearly everyone feared a long process of dying. Some wanted to die in their sleep; others wanted to die "on their feet".^[171]

The study of Older Adults' Views on Death found that the more frail people were, the more "pain, suffering, and struggles" they were enduring, the more likely they were to "accept and welcome" death as a release from their misery. Their fear about the process of dying was that it would prolong their distress. Besides being a release from misery, some saw death as a way to reunion with departed loved ones. Others saw death as a way to free their caretakers from the burden of their care.^[172]

Religiosity

Generally speaking, old people have always been more religious than young people.^[173] At the same time, wide cultural variations exist.^[174]

In the United States, 90% of old age Hispanics view themselves as very, quite, or somewhat religious.^[175] The Pew Research Center's study of black and white old people found that 62% of those in ages 65–74 and 70% in ages 75+ asserted that religion was "very important" to them. For all 65+ people, more women (76%) than men (53%) and more blacks (87%) than whites (63%) consider religion "very important" to them. This compares to 54% in the 30–49 age range.^[176]

In a British 20-year longitudinal study, less than half of the old people surveyed said that religion was "very important" to them, and a quarter said they had become less religious in old age.^[177] The late-life rise in religiosity is stronger in Japan than in the United States, but in the Netherlands it is minimal.^[174]

In the practice of religion, a study of 60+ people found that 25% read the Bible every day and over 40% look at religious TV.^[178] Pew Research found that in the age 65+ range, 75% of whites and 87% of blacks pray daily.^[176]

Participation in organized religion is not a good indicator of religiosity because transportation and health problems often hinder participation.^[175]

Demographic changes

In the industrialized countries, life expectancy and, thus, the old age population have increased consistently over the last decades.^[179] In the United States the proportion of people aged 65 or older increased from 4% in 1900 to about 12% in 2000.^[180] In 1900, only about {{Nowrap|3 million}} of the nation's citizens were 65 or older (out of 76 million total American citizens). By 2000, the number of senior citizens had increased to about 35 million (of 280 million US citizens). Population experts estimate that more than {{Nowrap|50 million}} Americans—about 17 percent of the population—will be 65 or older in 2020.^[181] By 2050, it is projected that at least 400,000 Americans will be 100 or older.^[182]

The number of old people is growing around the world chiefly because of the post–World War II baby boom and increases in the provision and standards of health care.^[183] By 2050, 33% of the developed world's population and almost 20% of the less developed world's population will be over 60 years old.^[184]

The growing number of people living to their 80s and 90s in the developed world has strained public welfare systems and has also resulted in increased incidence of diseases like cancer and dementia that were rarely seen in premodern times. When the United States Social Security program was created, persons older than 65 numbered only around 5% of the population and the average life expectancy of a 65-year-old in 1936 was approximately 5 years, while in 2011 it could often range from 10 to 20 years. Other issues that can arise from an increasing population are growing demands for health care and an increase in demand for different types of services.^[185]

Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes.^[186] In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.^[186]

Psychosocial aspects

According to Erik Erikson's "Stages of Psychosocial Development", the human personality is developed in a series of eight stages that take place from the time of birth and continue on throughout an individual's complete life. He characterises old age as a period of "Integrity vs. Despair", during which a person focuses on reflecting back on his life. Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.^[187]^[188]^[189] Coping is a very important skill needed in the aging process to move forward with life and not be 'stuck' in the past. The way a person adapts and copes, reflects his aging process on a psycho-social level.^[190]

For people in their 80s and 90s, Joan Erikson added a ninth stage in The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version.^[191] As she wrote, she added the ninth stage because the Integrity of the eighth stage imposes "a serious demand on the senses of elders" and the Wisdom of the eighth stage requires capacities that ninth stage elders "do not usually have".^[192]

Newman & Newman also proposed a ninth stage of life, Elderhood. Elderhood refers to those individuals who live past the life expectancy of their birth cohorts. There are two different types of people described in this stage of life. The "young old" are the healthy individuals who can function on their own without assistance and can complete their daily tasks independently. The "old old" are those who depend on specific services due to declining health or diseases. This period of life is characterized as a period of "immortality vs. extinction". Immortality is the belief that your life will go on past death, some examples are an afterlife or living on through one's family. Extinction refers to feeling as if life has no purpose.^[193]

Theories

Social theories, or concepts,^[194] propose explanations for the distinctive relationships between old people and their societies.

One of the theories is the disengagement theory proposed in 1961. This theory proposes that in old age a mutual disengagement between people and their society occurs in anticipation of death. By becoming disengaged from work and family responsibilities, according to this concept, people are enabled to enjoy their old age without stress.

This theory has been subjected to the criticism that old age disengagement is neither natural, inevitable, nor beneficial.^[195] Furthermore, disengaging from social ties in old age is not across the board: unsatisfactory ties are dropped and satisfying ones kept.^[196]

In opposition to the disengagement theory, the activity theory of old age argues that disengagement in old age occurs not by desire, but by the barriers to social engagement imposed by society. This theory has been faulted for not factoring in psychological changes that occur in old age as shown by reduced activity, even when available. It has also been found that happiness in old age is not proportional to activity.^[197]

According to the continuity theory, in spite of the inevitable differences imposed by their old age, most people try to maintain continuity in personhood, activities, and relationships with their younger days.^[197]

Life expectancy

In most parts of the world women live, on average, longer than men; even so, the disparities vary between 12 years in Russia to no difference or higher life expectancy for men in countries such as Zimbabwe and Uganda.^[200]

The number of elderly persons worldwide began to surge in the second half of the 20th century. Up to that time (and still true in underdeveloped countries), five or less percent of the population was over 65. Few lived longer than their 70s and people who attained advanced age (i.e. their 80s) were rare enough to be a novelty and were revered as wise sages. The worldwide over-65 population in 1960 was one-third of the under 5 population. By 2013, the over-65 population had grown to equal the under 5 population. The over-65 population is projected to double the under five by 2050.^[201]

Before the surge in the over-65 population, accidents and disease claimed many people before they could attain old age, and health problems in those over 65 meant a quick death in most cases. If a person lived to an advanced age, it was due to genetic factors and/or a relatively easy lifestyle, since diseases of old age could not be treated before the 20th century.^[202]

In October 2016, scientists identified the maximum human lifespan at an average age of 115, with an absolute upper limit of 125 years.^[15] However, the concept of a maximum lifespan in humans is still widely debated among the scientific community.^[203]

Benefits

German chancellor Otto von Bismarck created the world's first comprehensive government social safety net in the 1880s, providing for old age pensions.^[13]

In the United States of America, and the United Kingdom, 65 (UK 60 for women) was traditionally the age of retirement with full old age benefits.^[204]^[205]

In 2003, the age at which a United States citizen became eligible for full Social Security benefits began to increase gradually, and will continue to do so until it reaches 67 in 2027. Full retirement age for Social Security benefits for people retiring in 2012 is age 66.^[206] In the United Kingdom, the state pension age for men and women will rise to 66 in 2020 with further increases scheduled after that."^[205]

Originally, the purpose of old age pensions was to prevent elderly persons from being reduced to beggary, which is still common in some underdeveloped countries, but growing life expectancies and older populations have brought into question the model under which pension systems were designed.^[207] By 1990, the United States was spending 30 per cent of its budget on the elderly, compared with 2 per cent on education.^[208] The dominant perception of the American old age population changed from "needy" and "worthy" to "powerful" and "greedy," old people getting more than their share of the nation's resources.^[209] However, in 2011, using a Supplemental Poverty Measure (SPM), the old age American poverty rate was measured as 15.9%.^[50]

Assistance: devices and personal

In the United States in 2008, 11 million people aged 65+ lived alone: 5 million or 22% of ages 65–74, 4 million or 34% of ages 75–84, and 2 million or 41% of ages 85+. The 2007 gender breakdown for all people 65+ was men 19% and women 39%.^[210]

Many new assistive devices made especially for the home have enabled more old people to care for themselves activities of daily living (ADL). Able Data^[211] lists 40,000 assistive technology products in 20 categories.^[212] Some examples of devices are a medical alert and safety system, shower seat (making it so the person does not get tired in the shower and fall), a bed cane (offering support to those with unsteadiness getting in and out of bed) and an ADL cuff (used with eating utensils for people with paralysis or hand weakness).^[213]

A Swedish study found that at age 76, 46% of the subjects used assistive devices. When they reached age 86, 69% used them. The subjects were ambivalent regarding the use of the assistive devices: as "enablers" or as "disablers".^[214] People who view assistive devices as enabling greater independence accept and use them. Those who see them as symbols of disability reject them.^[215] However, organizations like Love for the Elderly aim to combat such age-related prejudice by educating the public about the importance of appreciating growing older, while also providing services of kindness to elders in senior homes.^[216]

Even with assistive devices as of 2006, 8.5 million Americans needed personal assistance because of impaired basic activities of daily living required for personal care or impaired instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) required for independent living. Projections place this number at 21 million by 2030 when 40% of Americans over 70 will need assistance.^[217] There are many options for such long term care to those who require it. There is home care in which a family member, volunteer, or trained professional will aid the person in need and help with daily activities. Another option is community services which can provide the person with transportation, meal plans, or activities in senior centers. A third option is assisted living where 24-hour round-the-clock supervision is given with aid in eating, bathing, dressing, etc. A final option is a nursing home which provides professional nursing care.^[218]

Depictions in art

A scholarly literature has emerged, especially in Britain, showing historical trends in the visual depiction of old age.^[219]^[220]^[221]^[222]

See also

References

1. ^Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition (American Psychological Association, 2009) {{ISBN|1433805618}}{{page needed|date=February 2015}}
2. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/senescence |title=Senescence – definition of senescence by The Free Dictionary |publisher=Thefreedictionary.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
3. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/gerontology |title=Gerontology – definition of gerontology by The Free Dictionary |publisher=Thefreedictionary.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
4. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/geriatrics |title=Geriatrics – definition of geriatrics by The Free Dictionary |publisher=Thefreedictionary.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
5. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-24572231 |title=Jeremy Hunt highlights plight of 'chronically lonely' – BBC News |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date= 2013-10-18|accessdate=2016-04-04|work=BBC News }}
6. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.everydayhealth.com/senior-health-photos/conditions-to-watch-for.aspx|title=10 Health Conditions to Watch for as You Age {{!}} Everyday Health|website=EverydayHealth.com|access-date=2019-03-03}}
7. ^{{cite book|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198568506.001.0001/acref-9780198568506-e-4834?rskey=7F4W2c&result=4834 |title=Old age |publisher=Oxford Reference |accessdate=2016-04-04|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198568506.001.0001 |year=2006 |isbn=9780198568506 }}
8. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/OlderPersons/Pages/OlderPersonsIndex.aspx|title=Human rights of older persons|website=OHCHR}}
9. ^{{cite web|url=http://0-www.oed.com.librarycatalog.vts.edu/view/Entry/258473?redirectedFrom=old+age& |title=Millennium Web Catalog |publisher=0-www.oed.com.librarycatalog.vts.edu |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
10. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/survey/ageingdefnolder/en/ |title=WHO | Definition of an older or elderly person |publisher=Who.int |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
11. ^http://www.who.int/healthinfo/survey/ageing_mds_report_en_daressalaam.pdf
12. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.aarp.org/health/medicare-insurance/info-04-2011/medicare-eligibility.html|title=Medicare Eligibility Requirements – How to Qualify for Medicare – AARP Everyw...|last=Barry|first=Patricia|website=AARP|access-date=2016-04-13}}
13. ^¹{{cite web|last=Editors |first=The |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/426737/old-age |title=old age |publisher=Britannica.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
14. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mailman.columbia.edu/academic-departments/centers/columbia-aging/about-us |title=Archived copy |accessdate=December 29, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212141539/http://www.mailman.columbia.edu/academic-departments/centers/columbia-aging/about-us |archivedate=December 12, 2013 }}
15. ^¹{{cite journal |last1=Dong |first1=Xiao |last2=Milholland |first2=Brandon |last3=Vijg |first3=Jan |title=Evidence for a limit to human lifespan |date=October 5, 2016 |doi=10.1038/nature19793 |volume=538 |issue=7624 |journal=Nature |pages=257–259 |pmid=27706136|bibcode=2016Natur.538..257D }}
16. ^{{cite news|last1=van Santen|first1=Hester|title=Peer review post-mortem: how a flawed aging study was published in Nature|url=https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2016/12/09/how-weak-science-slipped-past-through-review-and-landed-in-a-top-journal-a1535637|accessdate=11 December 2016|publisher=NRC|date=9 December 2016}}
17. ^Laura E. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, (Allyn & Bacon, 2010), 607.
18. ^{{cite journal|title=Frailty in Older Adults |journal=JAMA |volume=296 |issue=18 |pages=2280 |doi=10.1001/jama.296.18.2280 |pmid = 17090776|year=2006 |last1=Torpy |first1=Janet M. |last2=Lynm |first2=Cassio |last3=Glass |first3=Richard M. }}
19. ^{{cite journal |pmid=1727842|year=1992|author1=Forman|first1=D. E.|title=PTCA in the elderly: The "young-old" versus the "old-old"|journal=Journal of the American Geriatrics Society|volume=40|issue=1|pages=19–22|last2=Berman|first2=A. D.|last3=McCabe|first3=C. H.|last4=Baim|first4=D. S.|authorlink4=Donald S. Baim|last5=Wei|first5=J. Y.|doi=10.1111/j.1532-5415.1992.tb01823.x}}
20. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/gerona/gln045|pmid=19213852|title=Total Water Intakes of Community-Living Middle-Old and Oldest-Old Adults|journal=The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences|volume=64A|issue=4|pages=481–486|year=2009|last1=Zizza|first1=C. A.|last2=Ellison|first2=K. J.|last3=Wernette|first3=C. M.|pmc=2657166}}
21. ^{{cite web|url=http://transgenerational.org/aging/demographics.htm |title=Demographics of Aging |publisher=Transgenerational.org |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
22. ^Victor G. Cicirelli, Older Adults' Views on Death (Springer, 2002), 4.
23. ^Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. "third age".
24. ^Paul Higgs and Chris Gilleard, Rethinking Old Age: Theorizing the Fourth Age (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), vii, 119–120.
25. ^Phillips, Judith, Kristine Ajrouch, and Sarah Hillcoat-Nallétamby, Key Concepts in Social Gerontology (SAGE Publications, 2010), 12–13.
26. ^John Wattis, Stephen Curran, Practical Psychiatry of Old Age (Radcliffe Publishing, 2006). 2.
27. ^¹[https://web.archive.org/web/20010319220229/http://ohioline.osu.edu/ss-fact/0101.html ]
28. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.oup.com/oald-bin/web_getald7index1a.pl |title=Oxford Learner's Dictionaries | Find the meanings, definitions, pictures, pronunciation of words at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com |publisher=Oup.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
29. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/36/S0263600.html|title=Bartleby.com: Great Books Online – Quotes, Poems, Novels, Classics and hundreds more|accessdate=12 June 2016|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420174106/http://www.bartleby.com/61/36/S0263600.html|archivedate=20 April 2008|df=}}
30. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.chambersharrap.co.uk/chambers/features/chref/chref.py/main?query=senior+citizen&title=21st |title=www.chambersharrap.co.uk |publisher=www.chambersharrap.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
31. ^{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=71747&dict=CALD |title=senior citizen Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |publisher=Dictionary.cambridge.org |date=2016-03-30 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
32. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/senior-citizen |title=senior citizen – Definition from Longman English Dictionary Online |publisher=Ldoceonline.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
33. ^{{cite book|last1=Waughfield|first1=Claire G.|last2=Burckhalter|first2=Teresa S.|title=Mental health concepts|date=2002|publisher=Delmar/Thomson Learning|location=Clifton Park, NY|isbn=9780766838307|page=64|edition=5th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xylg46v5fRUC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64|accessdate=4 April 2016|language=en}}
34. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.theseniortimes.com/richler.htm|title=The Senior Times Online|accessdate=12 June 2016}}
35. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zIgT8dfbX1wC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=al+hirschfeld+father+coined+senior+citizen#v=onepage&q=al%20hirschfeld%20father%20coined%20senior%20citizen&f=false | title=Hirschfeld: On Line | publisher=Applause Theatre & Cinema Books | page=10 | date=February 1, 2000| accessdate=December 19, 2015| isbn=9781557833563 }}
36. ^{{cite AV media| people = Al Hirschfeld| title = The Line King: The Al Hirschfeld Story | medium = VHS| publisher = Cabin Fever Entertainment| date = 1996 }}
37. ^{{cite journal|url=http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,417721,00.html | title=That Old Feeling: The Fun in Al Hirschfeld | journal=Time | author=Richard Corliss | date=January 29, 2003| accessdate=December 19, 2015}}
38. ^{{cite web|author=Ahn Shin-Hyun |url=http://www.seriworld.org/01/wldContVod.html?mn=A&mncd=0301&sort=A&gubun=00&p_page=65&natcd=KR&key=20110404000005 |title=Economic Report |publisher=SERIWorld |date=2011-04-04 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
39. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ssa.gov/planners/retire/ageincrease.html |title=Retirement Age Calculator |publisher=Ssa.gov |date=2014-09-03 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
40. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/isp/oas/changes/index.shtml |title=Archived copy |accessdate=November 25, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102073722/http://www.servicecanada.gc.ca/eng/isp/oas/changes/index.shtml |archivedate=November 2, 2014 }}
41. ^{{cite journal |pmid=1891555|year=1991|author1=Salokangas|first1=R. K.|title=Physical and mental health changes in retirement age|journal=Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics|volume=55|issue=2–4|pages=100–7|last2=Joukamaa|first2=M|doi=10.1159/000288415}}
42. ^Richard A. Posner, Aging and Old Age (University of Chicago, 1997), 86–87.
43. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.communities.qld.gov.au/resources/communityservices/seniors/publications/ageing-myth-reality.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=November 19, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216170927/http://www.communities.qld.gov.au/resources/communityservices/seniors/publications/ageing-myth-reality.pdf |archivedate=December 16, 2013 }}
44. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev.ps.46.020195.001553|pmid=7872732|title=Aging and Speed of Behavior: Possible Consequences for Psychological Functioning|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|volume=46|pages=329–53|year=1995|last1=Birren|first1=J E|last2=Fisher|first2=L M}}
45. ^Donald H. Kausler and Barry C. Kausler, The Graying of America: An Encyclopedia of Aging, Health, Mind, and Behavior (University of Illinois, 2001), 376–377.
46. ^{{cite web|author=Updated 1553 GMT (2253 HKT) April 24, 2015 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/24/health/old-people-happy/ |title=Older people are happier than you. Why?|publisher=CNN|date=2015-04-24 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
47. ^¹²{{cite web|url=http://wahsa.org/agingprocess.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=December 12, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030211939/http://wahsa.org/agingprocess.pdf |archivedate=October 30, 2014 }}
48. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.documbase.com/The-Normal-Aging-Process.pdf |title=The Normal Aging Process – PDF documents |publisher=Documbase.com |date=2012-01-01 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
49. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.healthline.com/health/osteoporosis-diagnosis#Overview1|title=Osteoporosis Tests and Diagnosis|publisher=Healthline|date=2017-11-10}}
50. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.aoa.gov/Aging_Statistics/Profile/2011/docs/2011profile.pdf|title=Administration on Aging|access-date=2014-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010053036/http://www.aoa.gov/Aging_Statistics/Profile/2011/docs/2011profile.pdf|archive-date=2013-10-10|dead-url=yes|df=}}
51. ^{{Cite journal|title=Determinants of prognosis of COPD in the elderly: mucus hypersecretion, infections, cardiovascular comorbidity | European Respiratory Society |journal=European Respiratory Journal |volume=21 |pages=10S–14s |date=2003-05-01 |doi=10.1183/09031936.03.00403403 |last1=Pistelli |first1=R. |last2=Lange |first2=P. |last3=Miller |first3=D.L. }}
52. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/helping-your-elder-with-grooming-and-hygiene.html |title=Helping Your Elder with Grooming and Hygiene – For Dummies |publisher=Dummies.com |date=2008-11-07 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
53. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.JohnsHopkinsHealthAlerts.com |title=Health After 50: News on Prostate Cancer, Arthritis, Heart Disease, and other conditions which affect Health After 50 |publisher=Johnshopkinshealthalerts.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
54. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/brain/essential-tremor-basics |title=Essential Tremor: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment |publisher=Webmd.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
55. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/pi/aging/resources/guides/older.aspx|title=Older Adults' Health and Age-Related Changes}}
56. ^{{cite web|title=Facts About Cataract|url=https://www.nei.nih.gov/health/cataract/cataract_facts|accessdate=14 August 2016|date=September 2015}}
57. ^cf. Table 6 in: Harold A. Kahn, Howard M. Leibowitz, James P. Ganley, Mohandas M. Kini, Theodore Colton, Rita S. Nickerson, Thomas R. Dawber (1977) The Framingham Eye Study I. Outline And Major Prevalence Findings. American Journal of Epidemiology Vol 106, No 1, pp17-32
58. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FmlaIs9R2t8C&pg=PA156&dq=Presbyopia%20never%20occur#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Better Eyesight Without Glasses|last1=Bates|first2=W. H. Bates|last2=M.D|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Orient Paperbacks|via=Google Books|isbn=9788122204490}}
59. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ncoa.org/improve-health/center-for-healthy-aging/falls-prevention/falls-prevention-awareness.html |title=Falls Prevention Awareness Day |publisher=NCOA |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
60. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.learnnottofall.com/content/fall-facts/how-often.jsp |title=Falls and Injury Statistics for Seniors and Elderly |publisher=Learnnottofall.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
61. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/homeandrecreationalsafety/Falls/adultfalls.html |title=Important Facts about Falls | Home and Recreational Safety | CDC Injury Center |publisher=Cdc.gov |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
62. ^{{cite web|last=Judge |first=James O. |url=http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/geriatrics/gait-disorders-in-the-elderly/gait-disorders-in-the-elderly |title=Gait Disorders in the Elderly – Geriatrics – Merck Manuals Professional Edition |publisher=Merckmanuals.com |date=2016-03-25 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
63. ^¹²{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/healthy-aging/tc/healthy-aging-normal-aging |title=Healthy, Normal Aging: Physical Changes in Seniors |publisher=Webmd.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
64. ^{{cite journal|title=Selected Disorders of Skin Appendages—Acne, Alopecia, Hyperhidrosis|first=Jay C.|last=Vary|date=1 November 2015|journal=Med. Clin. North Am.|volume=99|issue=6|pages=1195–1211|doi=10.1016/j.mcna.2015.07.003|pmid=26476248}}
65. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-does-hair-turn-gray|title=Why does hair turn gray?|author=Laurence Meyer|date=|work=scientificamerican.com}}
66. ^{{cite journal |doi= |title=Prevalence of hearing loss among Canadians aged 20 to 79: Audiometric results from the 2012/2013 Canadian Health Measures Survey |year=2015 |last1=Feder |first1=K. |last2=Michaud |first2=D. |last3=Ramage-Morin |first3=P. |last4=McNamee |first4=J. |last5=Beauregard |first5=Y. |journal=Health Reports |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=18–25 |pmid=26177043 |pmc=}}
67. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/publication/heart-health#changes|title=Heart Health|first=National Institute on|last=Aging|date=12 July 2011|access-date=17 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918090523/https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/publication/heart-health#changes|archive-date=18 September 2016|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
68. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/780507_2 |title=The Immune System in the Elderly |publisher=Medscape.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
69. ^{{cite web|url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/004011.htm|title=Aging changes in the lungs: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia}}
70. ^{{cite web|url=http://med.brown.edu/neurology/articles/jf13408.pdf|title=Department of Neurology – Department of Neurology|accessdate=12 June 2016}}
71. ^{{cite web|author=Heidi Godman |url=http://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/two-questions-can-reveal-mobility-problems-in-seniors-201309186682 |title=Two questions can reveal mobility problems in seniors – Harvard Health Blog – Harvard Health Publications |publisher=Health.harvard.edu |date= 2013-09-18|accessdate=2016-04-04}}
72. ^{{cite web|last=King |first=Steven A. |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/challenge-geriatric-pain |title=The Challenge of Geriatric Pain |publisher=Psychiatric Times |date=2009-07-06 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
73. ^Gary McCleane and Howard Smith, editors, Clinical Management of the Elderly Patient in Pain (CRC Press, 2006). 150.
74. ^¹{{cite journal|title=Sexual Expression in Later Life: A Review and Synthesis|authorlink1=John DeLamater|first=John|last=DeLamater|date=1 March 2012|volume=49|issue=2–3|pages=125–141|doi=10.1080/00224499.2011.603168|pmid=22380585|journal=J Sex Res}}
75. ^{{cite journal|author=Richard Suzman |title=The National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project: An Introduction |doi=10.1093/geronb/gbp078 |volume=64B |journal=The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences |pages=i5–i11|pmc=2763520 |pmid=19837963 |year=2009}}
76. ^{{cite web|author=Todd B. Nippoldt, M.D. |url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/loss-of-sex-drive/AN01431 |title=Loss of sex drive in men: Natural with aging? |publisher=Mayo Clinic |date=2015-03-17 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
77. ^{{cite journal|title=Sexual interest and behavior in healthy 80- to 102-year-olds – Springer |doi=10.1007/BF01542662 | volume=17 |issue= 2|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |pages=109–129 |year=1988 | last1 = Bretschneider | first1 = Judy G.}}
78. ^http://assets.aarp.org/rgcenter/general/srr_09.pdf
79. ^Jana R. Cooke, MD, "Sleep Disorders in the Elderly," Psychiatric Times 25.4 (2008).
80. ^{{cite journal |pmid=15486596|pmc=427621|year=2004|author1=McCall|first1=W. V.|title=Sleep in the Elderly: Burden, Diagnosis, and Treatment|journal=Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=6|issue=1|pages=9–20|doi=10.4088/pcc.v06n0104}}
81. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.gather.com/viewArticle.action?articleId%3D281474977424338 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131125230408/http://www.gather.com/viewArticle.action?articleId=281474977424338 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=November 25, 2013 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=December 16, 2013 }}
82. ^{{cite journal|vauthors=Volkert D, Kreuel K, Stehle P | title=Fluid intake of community-living, independent elderly in Germany-a nationwide, representative study | journal=J Nutr Health Aging | year= 2005 | volume=9 | issue=5 | pages=305–9 | pmid=16222395 | doi= | pmc= }}
83. ^{{cite journal |pmid=7039134|pmc=1273322|year=1981|author1=Ouslander|first1=J. G.|title=Urinary incontinence in the elderly|journal=The Western Journal of Medicine|volume=135|issue=6|pages=482–91}}
84. ^{{cite web|author=The Body Odd |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/health/wavery-shaky-old-persons-voice-explained-1C8119298 |title=The wavery, shaky 'old person's voice,' explained |publisher=NBC News |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
85. ^Laura E. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, (Allyn & Bacon, 2010), 608–609.
86. ^Richard A. Posner, Aging and Old Age (University of Chicago, 1995), 112, 116.
87. ^Kennedy G.J. The epidemiology of late-life depression. In: Kennedy G. J, editor. Suicide and depression in late life: Critical issues in treatment, research and public policy. New York: John Wiley and Sons; 1996. pp. 23–37.
88. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/1745691612455204|title=Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|volume=7|issue=5|pages=427–449|year=2012|last1=Cox|first1=W. T. L.|last2=Abramson|first2=L. Y.|last3=Devine|first3=P. G.|last4=Hollon|first4=S. D.|pmid=26168502}}
89. ^¹Laura E. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, (Allyn & Bacon, 2010), 610.
90. ^Laura E. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, (Allyn & Bacon, 2010), 617.
91. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs381/en/ |title=WHO | Mental health and older adults |publisher=Who.int |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
92. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.09.023|pmid=19231028|pmc=2683339|title=When does age-related cognitive decline begin?|journal=Neurobiology of Aging|volume=30|issue=4|pages=507–14|year=2009|last1=Salthouse|first1=Timothy A.}}
93. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xE69BAAAQBAJ|title=Behavior Genetics of Cognition Across the Lifespan|first1=Deborah|last1=Finkel|first2=Chandra A.|last2=Reynolds|date=9 July 2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|via=Google Books|isbn=9781461474470}}
94. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/memory-loss/HQ00094 |title=Memory loss: When to seek help |publisher=Mayo Clinic |date=2014-06-05 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
95. ^Susan Jacoby, Never Say Die (Vintage, 2011) 12.
96. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/alzheimers-disease/DS00161 |title=Alzheimer's disease - Symptoms and causes |accessdate=December 12, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213071824/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/alzheimers-disease/DS00161 |archivedate=December 13, 2013 }}
97. ^George P. Moschis, Marketing to Older Consumers (Praeger, 1992), 102.
98. ^Martin S. Lindauer, Aging, Creativity, and Art (Springer, 2003), 55–56.
99. ^Richard A. Posner, Aging and Old Age (University of Chicago, 1995), 116.
100. ^How to Survive Your Aging Parents (Surrey, 2001); Are Your Parents Driving You Crazy? (Vanderwyk & Burnham, 2005); Coping With Your Difficult Older Parent: A Guide for Stressed-Out Children (William Morrow, 1999); Caring for Yourself While Caring for Your Aging Parents: How to Help, How to Survive (Holt, 2005); The Caregiver's Survival Handbook: Caring for Your Aging Parents Without Losing Yourself (Perigee, 2011).
101. ^David Solie, How to Say It to Seniors: Closing the Communication Gap with Our Elders (Prentice Hall, 2004), 2.
102. ^{{cite web|last=Matthiessen |first=Connie |url=http://www.caring.com/articles/elderly-communication |title=Elderly Communication | Communicating with Stubborn Elderly Parents |publisher=Caring.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
103. ^Gillick, The Denial of Aging: Perpetual Youth, Eternal Life, and Other Dangerous Fantasies (Harvard, 2007), 5–6.
104. ^Waneen Wyrick Spirduso, Karen L. Francis, Priscilla G. MacRae, Physical Dimensions of Aging (Human Kinetics, 2004), 26.
105. ^Susan Jacoby, Never Say Die: The Myth and Marketing of the New Old Age (Pantheon, 2011), 12.
106. ^Laura E. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan (Allyn & Bacon, 2010), 603.
107. ^Georges Minois, History of Old Age: From Antiquity to the Renaissance, trans. Sarah Hanbury Tenison (University of Chicago Press, 1989), 14.
108. ^Georges Minois, History of Old Age: From Antiquity to the Renaissance, trans. Sarah Hanbury Tenison (University of Chicago Press, 1989) Minois, 14–15.
109. ^Georges Minois, History of Old Age: From Antiquity to the Renaissance, trans. Sarah Hanbury Tenison (University of Chicago Press, 1989) Minois, 14.
110. ^Lillian B. Rubin, 60 on Up: The Truth About Aging in America (Beacon, 2007), 1, 7–8.
111. ^Mary C. Morrison, Let Evening Come (1998), 2–3.
112. ^Colleen Johnson and Barbara M. Barer, Life Beyond 85 Years (Prometheus, 2003), 7–8, 208.
113. ^Georges Minois, History of Old Age: From Antiquity to the Renaissance, trans. Sarah Hanbury Tenison (University of Chicago Press, 1989) Minois, 303.
114. ^¹Georges Minois, History of Old Age: From Antiquity to the Renaissance, trans. Sarah Hanbury Tenison (University of Chicago Press, 1989) Minois, 11.
115. ^Susan M. Hillier and Georgia M. Barrow, Aging, The Individual & Society (Cengage, 10th edition, 2014), 6–7.
116. ^Georges Minois, History of Old Age: From Antiquity to the Renaissance, trans. Sarah Hanbury Tenison (University of Chicago Press, 1989), 43.
117. ^¹Susan M. Hillier and Georgia M. Barrow, Aging, The Individual & Society (Cengage, 10th edition, 2014), 7.
118. ^¹Susan M. Hillier and Georgia M. Barrow, Aging, The Individual & Society (Cengage, 10th edition, 2014), 6.
119. ^Paul Johnson and Pat Thane, editors, Old Age from Antiquity to Post-Modernity (Routledge, 1998), 1.
120. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.answers.com/topic/old-age |title=The Most Trusted Place for Answering Life's Questions |publisher=Answers |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
121. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=GuqFh1Ff3rgC&dq=ancient%20%20old%20age%20Most%20people%20died%20before%20they%20were%20%2050|title=The Oxford Handbook of Retirement|first=Mo|last=Wang|date=8 November 2012|publisher=OUP USA|via=Google Books|isbn=9780199746521}}
122. ^Paul Johnson and Pat Thane, editors, Old Age from Antiquity to Post-Modernity (Routledge, 1998), 6.
123. ^Georges Minois, History of Old Age: From Antiquity to the Renaissance, trans. Sarah Hanbury Tenison (University of Chicago Press, 1989), 44.
124. ^Georges Minois, History of Old Age: From Antiquity to the Renaissance, trans. Sarah Hanbury Tenison (University of Chicago Press, 1989), 60.
125. ^Georges Minois, History of Old Age: From Antiquity to the Renaissance, trans. Sarah Hanbury Tenison (University of Chicago Press, 1989), 277–278, 280.
126. ^{{cite web|url=http://history-world.org/Utopia_T.pdf|title=Utopia}}
127. ^{{cite web|url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015002444985 |title=The diall of princes: by Don Anthony of Guevara: tr. by Sir Thomas ... – Full View | HathiTrust Digital Library | HathiTrust Digital Library |publisher=Babel.hathitrust.org |date=2012-08-18 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
128. ^Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 114.
129. ^James E. Birren and K Warner Schaie, eds., Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (Academic, 2011), 253.
130. ^Richard A. Posner, Aging and Old Age (University of Chicago, 1997), 320.
131. ^{{cite web|url=https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/selectatest.html |title=ProjectImplicit |publisher=Implicit.harvard.edu |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
132. ^Mahzarin R. Banaji and Anthony G. Greenwald, Blind Spot: Hidden Biases of Good People (Random House, 2013), 67.
133. ^Todd D. Nelson, ed, Ageism: Stereotyping and Prejudice Against Older Persons (Bradford, 2004), ix.
134. ^Judith E Phillips and others, Key Concepts in Social Gerontology (Sage, 2010), 23.
135. ^{{cite news |last=Staff |first=Writer |url=http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2015/feb/02/documentary-tracks-seniors-in-search-of-love/ |title=Documentary tracks seniors in search of love |work=The Spokesman-Review |date=2015-02-02 |accessdate=2015-07-06 }}
136. ^Simone de Beauvoir, The Coming of Age, trans by Patrick O'Brian (Norton, 1996), 381.
137. ^Texas A&M AgriLife Extension, "Aging Simulation: Sensitizing People to the Process of Aging" online athttp://fcs.tamu.edu/files/2015/06/aging-simulation.pdf.
138. ^Sensitizing People to the Processes of Aging: The In-Service Educator's Guide by Marvin Ernst and Herbert Shore, Dallas Geriatric Research Institute, 1977.
139. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/03/us/03aging.html|title=Simulating Age 85, With Lessons on Offering Care|date=3 August 2008|work=The New York Times|accessdate=12 June 2016}}
140. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.today.com/video/today/27336610#27336610 |title=TODAY Video – Latest TODAY show clips, news & video |publisher=TODAY.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
141. ^{{cite web| url =http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/blake/archive/object.xq?objectid=songsie.aa.illbk.46&java=yes | title = Songs of Innocence and of Experience, object 46 (Bentley 46, Erdman 46, Keynes 46) "LONDON" | editors = Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi| publisher = William Blake Archive|accessdate = June 10, 2014}}
142. ^¹²Tor Inge Romoren, Last Years of Long Lives: The Larvik Study (Routledge, 2003), 170.
143. ^{{cite web |vauthors=Weiss AJ, Barrett ML, Andrews RM | title = Trends and Projections of U.S. Hospital Costs by Payer, 2003–2013 | work = HCUP Statistical Brief #176 | publisher = Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality | location = Rockville, MD | date = July 2014 | url = http://hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb176-Hospital-Cost-Projections-by-Age-2013.jsp}}
144. ^Patricia M. Burbank, editor, Vulnerable Older Adults: Health Care Needs and Interventions (Springer, 2006), xxi, 4, 6.
145. ^{{cite web|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/stressors |title=Stressors | definition of stressors by Medical dictionary |publisher=Medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
146. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/dysregulation |title=Dysregulation Medical Definition | Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
147. ^Patricia M. Burbank, ed., Vulnerable Older Adults: Health Care Needs and Interventions (Springer, 2006), 20.
148. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1532-5415.2012.04054.x|pmid=22881367|title=Prevalence of Frailty in Community-Dwelling Older Persons: A Systematic Review|journal=Journal of the American Geriatrics Society|volume=60|issue=8|pages=1487–92|year=2012|last1=Collard|first1=Rose M.|last2=Boter|first2=Han|last3=Schoevers|first3=Robert A.|last4=Oude Voshaar|first4=Richard C.}}
149. ^Muriel R. Gillick M.D., Choosing Medical Care in Old Age: What Kind, How Much, When to Stop (Harvard, 1998), 106.
150. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/741960 |title=Prevalence of Frailty Increases Throughout Adulthood |publisher=Medscape.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
151. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0075847|pmid=24204581|title=Patterns of Frailty in Older Adults: Comparing Results from Higher and Lower Income Countries Using the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) and the Study on Global AGEing and Adult Health (SAGE)|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=8|issue=10|pages=e75847|year=2013|last1=Harttgen|first1=Kenneth|last2=Kowal|first2=Paul|last3=Strulik|first3=Holger|last4=Chatterji|first4=Somnath|last5=Vollmer|first5=Sebastian|bibcode=2013PLoSO...875847H|pmc=3812225}}
152. ^Colleen Johnson and Barbara M. Barer, Life Beyond 85 Years (Prometheus, 2003), 3.
153. ^{{cite web|url=http://thesaurus.yourdictionary.com/frailty |title=Another word for frailty | Synonyms for frailty |publisher=Thesaurus.yourdictionary.com |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
154. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/Nortin-M.-Hadler/e/B001ITYO36 |title=Nortin M. Hadler: Books, Biography, Blog, Audiobooks, Kindle |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
155. ^Muriel R. Gillick, Lifelines: Living Longer, Growing Frail, Taking Heart (Norton, 2001), x, xv–xvi, 5–6.
156. ^"diseases in addition to the primary disease"
157. ^Patricia M. Burbank, ed., Vulnerable Older Adults: Health Care Needs and Interventions (Springer, 2006), 25–26.
158. ^Colleen Johnson and Barbara M. Barer, Life Beyond 85 Years (Prometheus, 2003), 5–6.
159. ^Patricia M. Burbank, editor, Vulnerable Older Adults: Health Care Needs and Interventions (Springer, 2006), 9.
160. ^{{cite web |vauthors=Skiner HG, Blanchard J, Elixhauser A | title = Trends in Emergency Department Visits, 2006–2011 | work = HCUP Statistical Brief #179 | publisher = Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality | location = Rockville, MD | date = September 2014 | url = https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb179-Emergency-Department-Trends.jsp}}
161. ^{{cite web |vauthors=Steiner CA, Barett ML, Weiss AJ, Andrews RM | title = Trends and Projections in Hospital Stays for Adults With Multiple Chronic Conditions, 2003–2014 | work = HCUP Statistical Brief #183 | publisher = Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality | location = Rockville, MD | date = November 2014 | url =https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb183-Hospitalizations-Multiple-Chronic-Conditions-Projections-2014.jsp}}
162. ^Barbara Logue 1994, Last Rights: Death Control and the Elderly in America (Lexington Books/Macmillan, 1993), 17–18, 92.
163. ^{{cite web|author=Penelope Wang |url=http://money.cnn.com/2012/12/11/pf/end-of-life-care-duplicate-2.moneymag/ |title=Cutting the High Cost of End-of-Life Care | TIME |publisher=Money.cnn.com |date=2012-12-12 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
164. ^Penelope Wang, "Cutting the high cost of end-of-life care" (CNNMoney, 2012).
165. ^Nortin M. Hadler, Rethinking Aging: Growing Old and Living Well in an Overtreated Society (University of North Carolina, 2011) 1, 3.
166. ^Muriel R. Gillick M.D., Choosing Medical Care in Old Age: What Kind, How Much, When to Stop (Harvard, 1998), 116, 189,
167. ^Patricia M. Burbank, ed., Vulnerable Older Adults: Health Care Needs and Interventions (Springer, 2006), 3, 19.
168. ^Victor G. Cicirelli, Older Adults' Views on Death (Springer, 2002), 6–7, 9, 12, 32.
169. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/geriatric_medicine_gerontology/aging_research/health_services_research/multimorbidity.html |title=Multimorbidity | Johns Hopkins Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology |publisher=Hopkinsmedicine.org |date=2011-06-24 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
170. ^Barbara Logue, Last Rights: Death Control and the Elderly in America (Lexington Books/Macmillan, 1993), 18, 72.
171. ^Colleen Johnson and Barbara M. Barer, Life Beyond 85 Years (Prometheus, 2003), 202–207.
172. ^Victor G. Cicirelli, Older Adults' Views on Death (Springer, 2002) 55, 270, 276.
173. ^https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/57193/Davie%20Progress%20Report.pdf
174. ^¹Laura E. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, (Allyn & Bacon, 2010), 608.
175. ^¹Melvin A. Kimble, Susan H. McFadden, James W. Ellor, eds.,Aging, Spirituality, and Religion: A Handbook, Vol 1 (Fortress, 1995), 125.
176. ^¹http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/10/Getting-Old-in-America.pdf
177. ^Laura E. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, (Allyn & Bacon, 2010). 608.
178. ^Melvin A. Kimble, Susan H. McFadden, James W. Ellor, eds.,Aging, Spirituality, and Religion: A Handbook, Vol 1 (Fortress, 1995), 12.
179. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus08.pdf#026 |title=Table 26: Life expectancy at birth, at 65 years of age, and at 75 years of age by race and sex: United States, selected years, 1900 – 2005|date= |website= |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=26 August 2010}}
180. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-12.pdf|title=Census 2000 Brief, C2KBR/01-12, U.S.|publisher=Census Bureau|location=Washington, DC|accessdate=2009-03-17|last=Meyer|first=Julie|year=2001}}
181. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.agingstats.gov/Main_Site/Data/2012_Documents/Population.aspx |title=Older Americans 2012: Key Indicators of Well-Being |publisher=Agingstats.gov |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313055028/http://agingstats.gov/main_site/data/2012_documents/population.aspx |archivedate=2016-03-13 |df= }}
182. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2013/08/06/living-to-120-and-beyond-americans-views-on-aging-medical-advances-and-radical-life-extension/ |title=Living to 120 and Beyond: Americans' Views on Aging, Medical Advances and Radical Life Extension | Pew Research Center |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=2013-08-06 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
183. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/worldageing19502050/ |title=World Population Ageing |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
184. ^John Bond and others, editors, Ageing in Society (Sage, 2007 3rd ed), 1.
185. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v66n1/v66n1p1.html |title=Social Security: A Program and Policy History |publisher=Ssa.gov |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
186. ^¹{{cite journal |doi=10.2202/1941-6008.1011|title=Life Span Extension Research and Public Debate: Societal Considerations|journal=Studies in Ethics, Law, and Technology|volume=1|year=2007|last1=De Grey|first1=Aubrey D.N.J|citeseerx=10.1.1.395.745}}
187. ^Erikson, E.H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.
188. ^Erikson, E.H. (1963). Childhood and Society. (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
189. ^Carver, C.S. & Scheir, M.F. (2000). Perspectives on Personality. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon
190. ^{{cite web |url=http://ot.creighton.edu/community/OT_FOR_ELDERS/3rd_Edition_Chapters/Proofs/Padilla_Chapter_04_main.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-12-18 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219021259/http://ot.creighton.edu/community/OT_FOR_ELDERS/3rd_Edition_Chapters/Proofs/Padilla_Chapter_04_main.pdf |archivedate=2013-12-19 |df= }}
191. ^Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998).
192. ^Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998), 112–113.
193. ^Barbara M. Newman, Philip R. Newman, Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach: A Psychosocial Approach (Cengage Learning, 2011), Ch 13 "Later Adulthood (60–75 Years)" and Ch 14, "Elderhood (75 until death)".
194. ^"Theory: A conception . . . of something to be done, or of the method of doing it." Oxford English Dictionary Online . December 2013.
195. ^http://www.sciences360.com/index.php/an-overview-of-cumming-and-henrys-social-disengagement-theory-3750/
196. ^Laura E. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, (Allyn & Bacon, 2010), 613.
197. ^¹Laura E. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, (Allyn & Bacon, 2010), 614.
198. ^Laura E. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, (Allyn & Bacon, 2010), 614–615.
199. ^{{cite web|url=http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/2.21 |title=World Development Indicators | The World Bank |publisher=Wdi.worldbank.org |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
200. ^de Blij, Harm. The power of place. Geography, Destiny, and Globalization's Rough Landscape. Oxford University Press. London:2009. p161ff
201. ^http://www.who.int/ageing/publications/global_health.pdf
202. ^http://www.who.int/whr/2004/annex/topic/en/annex_2_en.pdf
203. ^{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=What's the Longest Humans Can Live? 115 Years, New Study Says |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/06/science/maximum-life-span-study.html |date=October 5, 2016 |work=New York Times |accessdate=October 6, 2016 }}
204. ^{{cite web|url=http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Old-Age+Benefits |title=Old-Age Benefits legal definition of Old-Age Benefits |publisher=Legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com |date=2013-05-23 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
205. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.thisismoney.co.uk/money/pensions/article-1679780/New-state-pension-age-retire.html |title=New state pension age: when will you retire? |publisher=This is Money |date=2016-03-10 |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
206. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.socialsecurity.gov/pubs/retirechart.htm |title=Age To Receive Full Social Security Retirement Benefits|date= |website= |publisher=U.S. Social SecurityAdministration|accessdate=6 June 2011}}
207. ^James H. Schulz and Robert H. Binstock, Aging Nation: The Economics and Politics of Growing Older in America (Johns Hopkins, 2008). 3–4.
208. ^{{Cite news|url = |title = U.S. spending|date = April 19, 1990|work = Rolling Stone|access-date = |via = |page = 43}}
209. ^Laura Katz Olson, The Not-so-golden Years: Caregiving, the Frail Elderly, and the Long-term Care Establishment (Rowman and Littlefield, 2003), 4.
210. ^http://longevity3.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/New-Realities-of-an-Older-America.pdf
211. ^Maintained for the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research of the U.S. Dept. of Education.
212. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.abledata.com/abledata.cfm?pageid=19327&ksectionid=19327 |title=Welcome to |publisher=AbleData |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
213. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/elderly/english/healthinfo/elderly/assistivedevices-e.htm |title=Elderly Health Service |accessdate=December 30, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130831094556/http://www.info.gov.hk/elderly/english/healthinfo/elderly/assistivedevices-e.htm |archivedate=August 31, 2013 }}
214. ^{{cite journal|title=Use of assistive devices – a reality full of contradictions in elderly persons' everyday life|first1=Greta|last1=Häggblom-Kronlöf|first2=Ulla|last2=Sonn|date=1 January 2007|volume=2|issue=6|pages=335–345|doi=10.1080/17483100701701672|journal=Assistive Technology}}
215. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.homemods.org/resources/pages/accept.shtml |title=Home Modifications |publisher=Homemods.org |date= |accessdate=2016-04-04}}
216. ^{{Cite web|url=http://lovefortheelderly.org/|title=Love for the Elderly|website=Love for the Elderly|access-date=2017-02-16}}
217. ^Patricia M. Burbank, editor, Vulnerable Older Adults: Health Care Needs and Interventions (Springer, 2006), 17.
218. ^http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/44363-LTC.pdf
219. ^Andrew Blaikie, "Beside the sea: Visual imagery, ageing and heritage." Ageing and Society 17#6 (1997): 629–648.
220. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Burholt | first1 = Vanessa | last2 = Scharf | first2 = Thomas | last3 = Walsh | first3 = Kieran | year = 2013 | title = Imagery and imaginary of islander identity: Older people and migration in Irish small-island communities | url = | journal = Journal of Rural Studies | volume = 31 | issue = | pages = 1–12 | doi=10.1016/j.jrurstud.2013.01.007}}
221. ^Wendy Martin, "Visual methods in ageing research." in Julia Twigg and Wendy Martin eds., Routledge Handbook of Cultural Gerontology (2015): 93–104.
222. ^Andrew Blaikie, Ageing and popular culture (Cambridge: University Press, 1999), excerpt {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817195201/http://www.langtoninfo.com/web_content/9780521645478_frontmatter.pdf |date=August 17, 2016 }}