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词条 Operation Plumbbob
释义

  1. Background

  2. Propulsion of steel plate cap

  3. List of tests

  4. Notes

  5. See also

  6. References

  7. External links

{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2018}}{{Infobox nuclear weapons test
|name = Operation Plumbbob
|picture = Operation Plumbbob - Priscilla 2.jpg
|picture_description = Plumbbob Priscilla
|country = United States
|test_site = {{plainlist|
  • NTS Area 12, Rainier Mesa
  • NTS Areas 5, 11, Frenchman Flat
  • NTS, Areas 1-4, 6-10, Yucca Flat}}

|period = 1957
|number_of_tests = 29
|test_type = balloon, dry surface, high alt rocket (30–80 km), tower, underground shaft, underground tunnel
|max_yield = {{convert|74|ktTNT|lk=in}}
|previous_series = Project 57
|next_series = Project 58/58A
}}{{GeoGroup|article=Operation Plumbbob}}

Operation Plumbbob was a series of nuclear tests conducted between May 28 and October 7, 1957, at the Nevada Test Site, following Project 57, and preceding Project 58/58A.[1] It was the biggest, longest, and most controversial test series in the continental United States.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

Background

The operation consisted of 29 explosions, of which only two did not produce any nuclear yield. Twenty-one laboratories and government agencies were involved. While most Operation Plumbbob tests contributed to the development of warheads for intercontinental and intermediate range missiles, they also tested air defense and anti-submarine warheads with smaller yields. They included forty-three military effects tests on civil and military structures, radiation and bio-medical studies, and aircraft structural tests. Operation Plumbbob had the tallest tower tests to date in the U.S. nuclear testing program as well as high-altitude balloon tests. One nuclear test involved the largest troop maneuver ever associated with U.S. nuclear testing.

Approximately 18,000 members of the U.S. Air Force, Army, Navy and Marines participated in exercises Desert Rock VII and VIII during Operation Plumbbob. The military was interested in knowing how the average foot-soldier would stand up, physically and psychologically, to the rigors of the tactical nuclear battlefield.

Almost 1,200 pigs were subjected to bio-medical experiments and blast-effects studies during Operation Plumbbob. On shot Priscilla (37 kt), 719 pigs were used in various experiments on Frenchman Flat. Some pigs were placed in elevated cages and provided with suits made of different materials, to test which materials provided best protection from the thermal radiation. As shown and reported in the PBS documentary Dark Circle, the pigs survived, but with third-degree burns to 80% of their bodies.[1] Other pigs were placed in pens behind large sheets of glass at measured distances from the hypocenter to test the effects of flying debris on living targets.

Studies were conducted of radioactive contamination and fallout from a simulated accidental detonation of a weapon; and projects concerning earth motion, blast loading and neutron output were carried out.

Nuclear weapons safety experiments were conducted to study the possibility of a nuclear weapon detonation during an accident. On July 26, 1957, a safety experiment, Pascal-A, was detonated in an unstemmed hole at NTS, becoming the first underground shaft nuclear test. The knowledge gained here would provide data to prevent nuclear yields in case of accidental detonations—for example, in a plane crash.

{{anchor|John}}

The John shot on July 19, 1957, was the only test of the Air Force's AIR-2 Genie missile with a nuclear warhead.[2] It was fired from an F-89J Scorpion fighter over Yucca Flats at the NNSS. On the ground, the Air Force carried out a public relations event by having five Air Force officers and a photographer stand under ground zero of the blast, which took place at between 18,500 and 20,000 feet altitude, with the idea of demonstrating the possibility of the use of the weapon over civilian populations without ill effects. In 2012, the photographer and the last survivor of the five met in a restaurant in Dallas to reminisce.[3] The five officers were: Colonel Sidney C. Bruce, later professor of Electrical Engineering at Colorado University, died in 2005; Lieutenant Colonel Frank P. Ball, died in 2003; Major John w. Hughes II, died in 1990; Major Norman B. Bodinger, died February 2, 1997; Major Donald A. Luttrell, died in December 20, 2014.[4] The photographer, Akira "George" Yoshitake, died in October 2013.[5]

{{anchor|Rainier}}

The Rainier shot, conducted September 19, 1957, was the first fully contained underground nuclear test, meaning that no fission products were vented into the atmosphere. This test of 1.7 kt could be detected around the world by seismologists using ordinary seismic instruments. The Rainier test became the prototype for larger and more powerful underground tests.

{{anchor|Priscilla}}

Some images from Upshot-Knothole Grable were accidentally relabeled as belonging to the Priscilla shot from Operation Plumbbob in 1957. As a consequence many publications including official government documents have the photo mislabeled.[6]

Propulsion of steel plate cap

{{anchor|Pascal-B}}

During the Pascal-B nuclear test, a {{convert|900|kg|adj=on}} steel plate cap (a piece of armor plate) was blasted off the top of a test shaft at a speed of more than {{convert|66|km/s|mi/s km/h mi/h|abbr=on}}. Before the test, experimental designer Robert Brownlee had estimated that the nuclear explosion, combined with the specific design of the shaft, would accelerate the plate to approximately six times Earth's escape velocity.[7] The plate was never found, but Dr. Brownlee believes[8] that the plate did not leave the atmosphere, as it may even have been vaporized by compression heating of the atmosphere due to its high speed. The calculated velocity was sufficiently interesting that the crew trained a high-speed camera on the plate, which unfortunately only appeared in one frame, but this nevertheless gave a very high lower bound for its speed. After the event, Dr. Brownlee described the best estimate of the cover's speed from the photographic evidence as "going like a bat!"[7][9]

List of tests

{{see also|List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States}}
 !style="background:#ffdead;" | Name [10] !style="background:#efefef;" | Date time (UT) !style="background:#ffdead;" | Local time zone [11] !style="background:#efefef;" | Location [12] !style="background:#ffdead;" | Elevation + height [13] !style="background:#efefef;" | Delivery [14]
Purpose [15] !style="background:#efefef;" | Device [16] !style="background:#ffdead;" | Yield [17] !style="background:#efefef;" class="unsortable" | Fallout [18] !style="background:#ffdead;" class="unsortable" | References !style="background:#efefef;" class="unsortable" | Notes
United States' Plumbbob series tests and detonations
1957|5|28}} 11:55:00.2PST (−8 hrs)
37.0947|-116.0245|name=Boltzmann|display=inline}}001444|}}{{convert|1294|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} tower,
weapons development		 XW-40{{sort|000120000|12 kt}}1.9|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][25][26] XW-40 lightweight boosted fission warhead test.
1957|6|2}} 11:54:59.9PST (−8 hrs)
37.0477|-116.022|name=Franklin|display=inline}}001319|}}{{convert|1229|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|90|m|abbr=on}} tower,
weapons development		 XW-30 ?{{sort|000001400|140 t}}19|kCi|TBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][25][26] XW-30 warhead test, fizzled. Retested successfully with Franklin Prime, with more fissile in the core and different explosives.
1957|6|5}} 11:45:00.3PST (−8 hrs)
37.1347|-116.0417|name=Lassen|display=inline}}001745|}}{{convert|1595|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		{{sort|000006000|600 t}}100|Ci|GBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][26] Fizzle, unboosted all-oralloy small weapon design.
1957|6|18}} 11:45:00.3PST (−8 hrs)
37.1347|-116.0417|name=Wilson|display=inline}}001739|}}{{convert|1589|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		 XW-45X1{{sort|000100000|10 kt}}1.5|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][25][26] XW-45X1 Swan test, gas-boosted composite pit.
1957|6|24}} 13:30:00.1PST (−8 hrs)
36.798|-115.9298|name=Priscilla|display=inline}}001150|}}{{convert|940|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|210|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		 Mk-15/39 primary{{sort|000370000|37 kt}}5.8|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][23][24][25][26] Effects shot with OTS weapon. Similar to that tested in Redwing Lacrosse.
1957|7|1}} 17:30:??PST (−8 hrs)
37.053|-116.034|name=Coulomb-A|display=inline}}001231|}}{{convert|1231|m|abbr=on}} + 0 dry surface,
safety experiment		 XW-31{{sort|000000000|no yield}} [1][22][23][25][26][52] Safety experiment, successful.
1957|7|5}} 11:40:00.1PST (−8 hrs)
37.1347|-116.0417|name=Hood|display=inline}}001745|}}{{convert|1285|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|460|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		 Swan{{sort|000740000|74 kt}}11|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][26] Largest atmospheric test in CONUS. Was a 2-stage thermonuclear device, even though AEC stated that no thermonuclear devices were being tested at the NTS. Desert Rock VII.
1957|7|15}} 11:30:00.1PST (−8 hrs)
37.1502|-116.1095|name=Diablo|display=inline}}001517|}}{{convert|1367|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} tower,
weapons development		 Swan{{sort|000170000|17 kt}}2.5|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][26] Very similar to the Shasta test device. 2 stage. Misfired at first firing attempt three days earlier.
1957|7|19}} 14:00:04.6PST (−8 hrs)
37|-116.0539|name=Launch_John|display=inline}}, elv: {{convert|1220|+|5600|m|abbr=on}};
Detonation over NTS {{coord|37.1605|-116.0539|name=John|display=inline}}		006919|}}{{convert|1280|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|5639|m|abbr=on}} high alt rocket (30–80 km),
weapon effect		 W-25{{sort|000020000|2 kt}} I-131 venting detected, 6.1MCi? [1][23][24][25][26] Proof test of AIR-2A Genie air-to-air rocket. Test made famous by five officers and a photographer standing at ground zero during the blast.
1957|7|24}} 11:49:59.9PST (−8 hrs)
37.09549|-116.10354|name=Kepler|display=inline}}001468|}}{{convert|1318|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} tower,
weapons development		 XW-35 primary !{{sort|000100000|10 kt}}1.7|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][25][26] ICBM warhead, similar to Hardtack I/Koa.
1957|7|25}} 13:29:59.7PST (−8 hrs)
37.1347|-116.0417|name=Owens|display=inline}}001410|}}{{convert|1260|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		 XW-51 ?{{sort|000097000|9.7 kt}}1.7|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][25][26] Very small boosted plutonium device, XW-51 progenitor.
1957|7|26}} 08:00:00.0PST (−8 hrs)
37.05175|-116.03415|name=Pascal-A|display=inline}}001052|}}{{convert|1202|m|abbr=on}} - {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} underground shaft,
safety experiment		{{sort|000000550|55 t}}10|kCi|TBq|abbr=on}} [1][23][24][26]Galileo A. One-point safety experiment, failure. Expected yield was less than 1 kg. A concrete cylinder perhaps {{convert>2|m|abbr=on}} thick {{convert|100|m|abbr=on}} up the tube disappeared.
1957|8|7}} 12:25:00.2PST (−8 hrs)
37.0866|-116.0245|name=Stokes|display=inline}}001710|}}{{convert|1250|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|460|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		 XW-30{{sort|000190000|19 kt}}2.8|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][25][26] Tactical Atomic Demolition Munition (TADM) and Talos SAM warhead.
1957|8|10}} 00:59:55.1PST (−8 hrs)
37.19355|-116.20059|name=Saturn|display=inline}}001191|}}{{convert|1231|m|abbr=on}} - {{convert|39.01|m|abbr=on}} underground tunnel,
safety experiment		 XW-45X1{{sort|000000000|50 kg}} [1][23][25][26][93] One-point safety experiment; first shot in a Rainier tunnel.
1957|8|18}} 12:00:00.0PST (−8 hrs)
37.128|-116.1073|name=Shasta|display=inline}}001489|}}{{convert|1339|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} tower,
weapons development		 Swan{{sort|000170000|17 kt}}2.5|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][26] 2 stage thermonuclear design.
1957|8|23}} 12:30:00.1PST (−8 hrs)
37.0866|-116.0245|name=Doppler|display=inline}}001742|}}{{convert|1282|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|460|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		 XW-34 ?{{sort|000110000|11 kt}}1.7|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][25][26] LASL gas boosted implosion device, possible XW-34 test.
1957|8|27}} 22:35:00.0PST (−8 hrs)
37.04903|-116.0347|name=Pascal-B|display=inline}}001079|}}{{convert|1229|m|abbr=on}} - {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} underground shaft,
safety experiment		{{sort|000003000|300 t}} [1][22][23][24][26]4|in|abbr=on}} thick steel cap weighing several hundred pounds possibly into solar orbit or burn up in atmosphere, estimated velocity more than {{convert|66|km/s|abbr=on}}.
1957|8|30}} 12:39:59.9PST (−8 hrs)
37.0866|-116.0245|name=Franklin Prime|display=inline}}001512|}}{{convert|1282|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|230|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		{{sort|000047000|4.7 kt}}690|kCi|TBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][25][26] Retest of Franklin with more U-235.
1957|8|31}} 12:30:00.0PST (−8 hrs)
37.18712|-116.06887|name=Smokey|display=inline}}001577|}}{{convert|1367|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|210|m|abbr=on}} tower,
weapons development		 TX-41 primary{{sort|000440000|44 kt}}6.4|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][25][26][122] 2 stages of 3 stage thermonuke, similar to Redwing/Zuni and Tewa. Desert Rock VII; 3000 servicemen irradiated; 10 of 4 expected leukemia cases in the 80s. Last pristine air-drop location at the NTS.
1957|9|2}} 12:40:00.0PST (−8 hrs)
37.053|-116.1034|name=Galileo|display=inline}}001444|}}{{convert|1294|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} tower,
weapons development		{{sort|000110000|11 kt}}1.9|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][26] LASL diagnostic/exploratory test of boosted fission device. Desert Rock VIII.
1957|9|6}} 12:45:00.0PST (−8 hrs)
37.1347|-116.0417|name=Wheeler|display=inline}}001436|}}{{convert|1286|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		 XW-51 ?{{sort|000001970|197 t}}27|kCi|TBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][25][26] Retest of redesigned Lassen device, possible XW-51 air-to-air warhead progenitor.
1957|9|6}} 20:05:00.6PST (−8 hrs)
37.0427|-116.0277|name=Coulomb-B|display=inline}}001225|}}{{convert|1225|m|abbr=on}} + 0 dry surface,
safety experiment		 XW-31{{sort|000003000|300 t}}42|kCi|TBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][25][26] One-point safety experiment, high limits test, expected 1 kg TNT equivalent, max .2 kt - failure.
1957|9|8}} 12:59:59.8PST (−8 hrs)
37.0866|-116.0245|name=Laplace|display=inline}}001512|}}{{convert|1282|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|230|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		 XW-33 "Fleegle"{{sort|000010000|1 kt}}140|kCi|TBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][26] The third of only four gun-type weapons, with Little Boy, Grable and Aardvark. The XW-33 was a gun shell.
1957|9|14}} 16:44:59.8PST (−8 hrs)
37.0336|-116.0323|name=Fizeau|display=inline}}001370|}}{{convert|1220|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} tower,
weapons development		 XW-34 ?{{sort|000110000|11 kt}}1.7|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][25][26] LASL boosted fission device. Possibly a test of the XW-34 depth bomb.
1957|9|16}} 12:49:59.9PST (−8 hrs)
37.0866|-116.0245|name=Newton|display=inline}}001742|}}{{convert|1282|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|460|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		 XW-31{{sort|000120000|12 kt}}2.1|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][25][26] LASL test of XW-31 variant, boosted primary in thermonuclear system mockup. Sounds like a fizzle, but no one says so.
1957|9|19}} 16:59:59.45PST (−8 hrs)
37.19573|-116.20404|name=Rainier|display=inline}}002022|}}{{convert|2295|m|abbr=on}} - {{convert|272.8|m|abbr=on}} underground tunnel,
weapons development		 W-25{{sort|000017000|1.7 kt}} [1][22][23][24][25][26][93] First US underground nuclear test. Evaluate containment and detection of underground testing, formed a chimney of broken rock which provided data on possible underground engineering applications of nuclear explosives.
1957|9|23}} 12:29:59.8PST (−8 hrs)
37.1383|-116.1184|name=Whitney|display=inline}}001520|}}{{convert|1370|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} tower,
weapons development		 W27 primary{{sort|000190000|19 kt}}2.9|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][25][26] Test of boosted Swan primary in W-27 thermonuclear system mockup.
1957|9|28}} 12:59:59.9PST (−8 hrs)
37.1347|-116.0417|name=Charleston|display=inline}}001745|}}{{convert|1285|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|460|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		{{sort|000120000|12 kt}}1.8|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][24][26] UCRL test of a small "clean" tactical 2-stage thermonuclear device. Device fizzled when second stage failed to fire.
1957|10|7}} 13:00:00.1PST (−8 hrs)
37.1347|-116.0417|name=Morgan|display=inline}}001435|}}{{convert|1285|m|abbr=on}} + {{convert|150|m|abbr=on}} balloon,
weapons development		 XW-45X1 Swan/Flamingo{{sort|000080000|8 kt}}1.2|MCi|PBq|abbr=on}} [1][22][23][25][26]

Notes

1. ^Dark Circle, DVD release date March 27, 2007, Directors: Judy Irving, Chris Beaver, Ruth Landy. {{ISBN|0-7670-9304-6}}. https://www.pbs.org/pov/darkcircle/
2. ^{{cite web|title=Five Men Agree To Stand Directly Under An Exploding Nuclear Bomb|author=Robert Krulwich|publisher=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/krulwich/2012/07/16/156851175/five-men-agree-to-stand-directly-under-an-exploding-nuclear-bomb}}
3. ^{{cite news|title=George Yoshitake, Nuclear Test Photographer, Recalls Filming Nuclear Blast 55 Years Ago|author=Timothy Stenovec|publisher=Huffington Post|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/20/george-yoshitake-nuclear-test-five-5-men-nevada_n_1687233.html|date=July 20, 2012}}
4. ^{{cite news| title=Donald Allen Luttrell (obituary)| newspaper=Dallas Morning News| date=January 1, 2015| url=http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/dallasmorningnews/obituary.aspx?pid=173687969| accessdate=February 15, 2015}}
5. ^{{cite news|title=Akira "George" Yoshitake (obituary)| newspaper=Lompoc Record| publication-place=Lompoc, California, US| date=October 22, 2013| url=http://www.lompocrecord.com/lifestyles/announcements/obituaries/akira-george-yoshitake/article_e7d7490d-8347-5fab-a8ed-6e0adf725271.html| accessdate=May 17, 2014}}
6. ^Carey Sublette, "Operation Plumbbob," Nuclear Weapon Archive, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Plumbob.html. (accessed December 27, 2006).
7. ^1 {{cite web| url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Brownlee.html| title=Learning to Contain Underground Nuclear Explosions| first=Robert R.| last=Brownlee|date=June 2002| accessdate=July 31, 2006}}
8. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2015/07/16/america_soviets_space_race/|title=Did speeding American manhole cover beat Sputnik into space?}}
9. ^Pascal B test at the Nuclear Weapon Archive.
10. ^The US, France and Great Britain have code-named their test events, while the USSR and China did not, and therefore have only test numbers (with some exceptions – Soviet peaceful explosions were named). Word translations into English in parentheses unless the name is a proper noun. A dash followed by a number indicates a member of a salvo event. The US also sometimes named the individual explosions in such a salvo test, which results in "name1 – 1(with name2)". If test is canceled or aborted, then the row data like date and location discloses the intended plans, where known.
11. ^To convert the UT time into standard local, add the number of hours in parentheses to the UT time; for local daylight saving time, add one additional hour. If the result is earlier than 00:00, add 24 hours and subtract 1 from the day; if it is 24:00 or later, subtract 24 hours and add 1 to the day. All historical timezone data are derived from here {{cite web| title=Timezone Historical Database| publisher=iana.com| url=http://www.ietf.org/timezones/| accessdate=March 8, 2014}}
12. ^Rough place name and a latitude/longitude reference; for rocket-carried tests, the launch location is specified before the detonation location, if known. Some locations are extremely accurate; others (like airdrops and space blasts) may be quite inaccurate. "~" indicates a likely pro-forma rough location, shared with other tests in that same area.
13. ^Elevation is the ground level at the point directly below the explosion relative to sea level; height is the additional distance added or subtracted by tower, balloon, shaft, tunnel, air drop or other contrivance. For rocket bursts the ground level is "N/A". In some cases it is not clear if the height is absolute or relative to ground, for example, Plumbbob/John. No number or units indicates the value is unknown, while "0" means zero. Sorting on this column is by elevation and height added together.
14. ^Atmospheric, airdrop, balloon, gun, cruise missile, rocket, surface, tower, and barge are all disallowed by the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Sealed shaft and tunnel are underground, and remained useful under the PTBT. Intentional cratering tests are borderline; they occurred under the treaty, were sometimes protested, and generally overlooked if the test was declared to be a peaceful use.
15. ^Include weapons development, weapon effects, safety test, transport safety test, war, science, joint verification and industrial/peaceful, which may be further broken down.
16. ^Designations for test items where known, "?" indicates some uncertainty about the preceding value, nicknames for particular devices in quotes. This category of information is often not officially disclosed.
17. ^Estimated energy yield in tons, kilotons, and megatons. A ton of TNT equivalent is defined as 4.184 gigajoules (1 gigacalorie).
18. ^Radioactive emission to the atmosphere aside from prompt neutrons, where known. The measured species is only iodine-131 if mentioned, otherwise it is all species. No entry means unknown, probably none if underground and "all" if not; otherwise notation for whether measured on the site only or off the site, where known, and the measured amount of radioactivity released.
19. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 {{citation| last1=Yang| first1=Xiaoping| first2=Robert| last2=North| first3=Carl| last3=Romney| date=August 2000| title=CMR Nuclear Explosion Database (Revision 3)| publisher=SMDC Monitoring Research}}
20. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 {{citation| last=Hansen| first=Chuck| year=1995| title=The Swords of Armageddon, Vol. 8| publisher=Chukelea Publications| location=Sunnyvale, CA| ISBN=978-0-9791915-1-0}}
21. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 {{citation| first1==P.S.| last1=Harris| first2=C.| last2=Lowery| first3=A.| last3=Nelson| publisher=Defense Nuclear Agency| year=1981| title=Plumbbob Series, 1957 Final| type=DNA6005F| url=http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a107317.pdf| accessdate=January 6, 2014}}
22. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 {{citation| url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/radiation/i131-report-and-appendix| accessdate=January 5, 2014| title=Estimated exposures and thyroid doses received by the American people from Iodine-131 in fallout following Nevada atmospheric nuclear bomb tests| chapter=2| publisher=National Cancer Institute| year=1997}}
23. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 {{citation| url=http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests| accessdate=January 6, 2014| last=Sublette| first=Carey| title=Nuclear Weapons Archive}}
24. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 {{citation| publisher=Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office| date=December 1, 2000| title=United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992| type=DOE/NV-209 REV15| location=Las Vegas, NV| url=http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/publications/historical/DOENV_209_REV15.pdf| accessdate=December 18, 2013| deadurl=yes| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061012160826/http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/publications/historical/DOENV_209_REV15.pdf| archivedate=October 12, 2006| df=}}
25. ^1 {{citation| last1=Norris| first1=Robert Standish| first2=Thomas B.| last2=Cochran| date=February 1, 1994| title=United States nuclear tests, July 1945 to 31 December 1992 (NWD 94-1)| journal=Nuclear Weapons Databook Working Paper| publisher=Natural Resources Defense Council| location=Washington, DC| url=http://docs.nrdc.org/nuclear/files/nuc_02019401a_121.pdf| accessdate=October 26, 2013| deadurl=yes| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194805/http://docs.nrdc.org/nuclear/files/nuc_02019401a_121.pdf| archivedate=October 29, 2013| df=}}
26. ^1 2 {{citation| publisher=Sandia National Laboratories| date=July 1, 1994| title=Official list of underground nuclear explosions| url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Nevada.html| accessdate=December 18, 2013}}
27. ^1 {{citation| publisher=Defense Nuclear Agency, Department of Defense| location=Washington, DC| year=1981| title=Shot Smoky: A Test of the Plumbbob Series, 31 August 1957 (DNA-6004F)| url=http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uiug.30112075684347| accessdate=October 28, 2013}}

See also

  • Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
  • Totskoye nuclear exercise

References

{{reflist|refs=[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27]
}}

External links

{{Commons|Operation Plumbbob}}
  • Video clips: Historic color footage of shot "Owens", {{YouTube|szbb00ncNNs|Rainier}} during Operation Plumbbob
  • Plumbbob page on the Nuclear Weapons Archive (also refers to manhole cover issue mentioned above).
{{Nuclear weapons tests of the United States}}

5 : Nevada Test Site nuclear explosive tests|Radiation health effects|1957 in military history|1957 in Nevada|1957 in the environment
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