词条 | Osage language | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
释义 |
| compact = | special = Osage Unicode characters | fix = Help:Multilingual_support | characters = Osage letters }}{{Infobox language |name=Osage |altname=𐓏𐓘𐓻𐓘𐓻𐓟 𐒻𐓟 |nativename=Wazhazhe ie |states=United States |region=Oklahoma |ethnicity=Osage people |extinct=2005, with the death of Lucille Roubedeaux |familycolor=American |fam1=Siouan |fam2=Western Siouan |fam3=Mississippi Valley |fam4=Dhegiha |fam5=Kansa–Osage |script=Latin (Osage alphabet), Osage script |iso2=osa |iso3=osa |glotto=osag1243 |glottorefname=Osage |linglist=qlc |lingname=Kansa-Osage |map=Oklahoma Indian Languages.png |mapcaption=Map showing the distribution of Oklahoma Indian Languages }} Osage ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|oʊ|s|eɪ|dʒ|,_|oʊ|ˈ|s|eɪ|dʒ}};[1] Osage: 𐓏𐓘𐓻𐓘𐓻𐓟 𐒻𐓟 Wazhazhe ie) is a Siouan language spoken by the Osage people of Oklahoma. Osage has an inventory of sounds very similar to that of Dakota, plus vowel length, preaspirated obstruents and an interdental fricative (like "th" in English "then"). In contrast to Dakota, phonemically aspirated obstruents appear phonetically as affricates, and the high back vowel *u has been fronted to {{IPA|[y]}}. Osage is written primarily using the Latin script with diacritics. In 2006, a derived Osage script, with diacritics reflecting the Latin, was created for it; the final 2014 revision was included in Unicode version 9.0 in June 2016 in the Osage block.[2] Language revitalizationAs of 2009, about 15-20 elders were second language speakers of Osage. The Osage Language Program, created in 2003, provides audio and video learning materials on its website.[3] The 2nd Annual Dhegiha Gathering in 2012 brought Osage, Kaw, Quapaw, Ponca and Omoha speakers together to share best practices in language revitalization.[4] In early 2015, Osage Nation Chief Geoffrey Standing Bear announced he would make Osage language immersion a priority.[5] PhonologyOsage phonology is quite similar to that of Kansa. However, it preserves many historical alternations that have been leveled out in Kansa; for example, Kansa *u has merged with *i, whereas it is still largely distinct in Osage. VowelsBasic vowelsOsage has five plain vowels:
These are written {{angle bracket|i u e o a}}.
Usually in fast speech, the /a/ is pronounced {{IPA|[ə]}}.[6] This assimilation occurs after a stressed syllable, or at the end of a word. For example: {{IPA|céska [tsɛ́skə]}} 'cow', {{IPA|tóa [tóe]}} 'this one'. Nasalized vowelsThere are three vowels that carry this feature: {{IPA|[ɑ̃] [ĩ] [õ]}}. It is quite common for nasalized {{IPA|[ɑ̃]}} to become a nasal {{IPA|[õ]}} and vice versa. Non-nasalized vowels can be heard as nasalized as well. In general, vowels tend to become nasalized adjacent to another nasal vowel or consonant when there is no intervening obstruent. On the other hand, final nasal vowels tend to become oral. However, nasal vowels are always short, regardless of their position. Examples: {{IPA|[ʃímĩʒɛ]}} 'girl' and {{IPA|[paˑɣõ]}} 'mountain' Vowel clusters and long vowelsAccording to Hans Wolff [7] (65), common Osage vowel clusters are:
Vowel length is important in Osage, but it is hard to perceive and has a good deal of variation. For example, long vowels are often reduced to short ones when they are not accented.[8] Quintero took long vowels to be the underlying form in such situations. There is not enough information to specify exactly how the accent system works in Osage, and there is still uncertainty about Osage vowel length. Oral vowels are long before non-stop consonants and in final stressed position. When they are unstressed in final position, they are always short. Lengthening of short vowels often occurs in questions.[9] Example: {{IPA|/ʃkó̃ʃta/}} 'you want' becomes {{IPA|[ʃkó̃õʃta]}}? Long vowels also arise when ð is omitted between identical vowels.[8] Example: ðakʼéwaða 'be kind to them' may become ðakʼéwaa. When e(e) changes to a(a), an immediately preceding c is often replaced by t (thought not always)[10] Example: océ 'look for, hunt for' becomes otá 'look for it!' DiphthongsThe vowel sequences {{IPA|/aĩ/}} {{IPA|/eĩ/}} {{IPA|/oĩ/}} and {{IPA|/ai/}} are almost certainly diphthongs.{{cn|date=March 2019}} The Osage script has letters to represent each of the diphthongs. ConsonantsThere are thirty-one consonant phonemes in Osage,[12] twenty-two of which are voiceless and nine are voiced. However, Osage has a unique system of sounds, which to English speakers might seem very similar but are actually quite distinctive to an Osage native speaker or listener. This system is known as the stop series, or the stop sequence. (See below)
Stop seriesThe stop series is a vital part of Osage phonology. The series can be grouped according to five categories:
The ejective, fortis, and lenis series of the alphabet are not distinguished in Osage orthography. Listed below is some features and phonological alternations of Osage:
{{IPA|/ts/ → [tʃ]/_[ʃ]}} Examples: íðotse 'be open' ihtṍtse 'son-in-law' ðekṍõce 'now' {{IPA|[mɑ̃ʃtʃĩ́kɛ]}} 'rabbit' {{IPA|[ʃtʃɛ́]}} 'you went'
{{IPA|/x/ → [ɣ]/V__V}} Examples: {{IPA|[hóxpe]}} 'cough' {{IPA|[hpéɣe]}} 'gourd' {{IPA|[nɑ̃́ɑ̃ɣe]}} 'spirit' {{IPA|[hkáɣe]}} 'crow'
{{IPA|/ð/ → [d]/#__a}} Examples: ðɑ̃lĩ {{IPA|[dɑ̃dlĩ]}} 'good' ðɑ̃brĩ {{IPA|[dɑ̃bəðĩ]}} 'three' ðĩe {{IPA|[ðĩɛ]}} 'you' cʼéðe {{IPA|[tsʼɛˑðɛ]}} 'he killed it'
Examples: {{IPA|brĩiʃtɑ̃}} 'I'm finished' {{IPA|abrĩ}} 'I have' {{IPA|waabrṍ}} 'I am unable' The dentalveolar obstruents are often fricated: the ejective always (though it has other sources as well), and the other series before the front vowels {{IPA|/i ĩ e u/}}. Exceptions occur due to compounding and other derivational processes. For example, from hką́ą́ce 'fruit' and oolá 'put in' is hkąącóla 'pie'. (The fricated allophone is written c.) Č, hč are rare, and only found in diminutives: č only in two words, čóopa 'a little', čáahpa 'squat', and hč for hc in endearment forms of kin terms like wihčóšpa 'my grandchild'. In Hominy, šc is pronounced šč. Consonant clustersOsage has a simple expanded CV syllabic template: (C(C)) V (V).[15] All consonants occur initially and medially; they never occur in final position. Consonant clusters of the type CC only occur in initial and medial positions. Furthermore, only voiceless consonants form clusters, with the exception of {{IPA|[br]}}.[7] The initial clusters are {{IPA|[pʃ] [kʃ] [tsʼ] [st] [sts] [sk] [ʃt] [ʃk] [br]}}, excluding aspirated stops. Examples: pʃĩta 'I'll come (to your house)' kʃí 'he reached home' ʰtséka 'crazy' stúʒa 'you wash it' stséce 'long' skɑ̃ 'white' ʃtátɑ̃ 'you drank it' ʃkṍʃta 'you wanted it' bráze 'torn' Medial clusters may be divided into two groups:
Examples: tapʼõkʼe 'he hit it' wécʼa 'snake' nɑ̃ḱṍ 'he heard it' aṍpha 'I understand it' áthɑ̃ 'he kicked it' áððikhɑ̃ 'he lay down' épʃe 'I spoke' ðacpé 'to eat' nĩ́kʃe 'you are here' nã́kwĩ 'both, we two'
Examples: ĩ́spe 'ax' laská 'flower' ókisce 'half' ðaʃtú 'to bite' paʃpú 'to chip' iʃtá 'eyes' walúʃks 'bug' mɑ̃ʃcĩ́ke 'rabbit' mɑ̃xpú 'clouds' ðaxtáke 'to bite' mõĩ́xka 'soil/dirt' wĩ́xci 'one' Historical phonologyThe historically aspirated series *pʰ *tʰ *kʰ is seldom realized with aspiration today. Before back vowels they are {{IPA|[px tx kx]}}, and before front vowels {{IPA|[pʃ tsʰ kʃ]}} (written pš ch kš). Some speakers from Hominy assimilate tx to {{IPA|[tkx]}} or {{IPA|[kx]}}. Đ, n, r all derive from historic *r, and l from *kr and *xr. The latter is a recent phenomenon; in the 1930s words with modern l were transcribed xth and gth. Historically *r became ð before oral vowels and n before nasal vowels, but since the nasalization has often been lost, there are minimal pairs and {{IPA|/l, n/}} are now separate phonemes. Nonetheless, intervocalic ð is optionally pronounced {{IPA|[n]}} in many words. It is also sometimes strongly palatalized intervocalically, to the point of becoming {{IPA|[j]}}. In words with l, this is sometimes pronounced {{IPA|[hl]}} or {{IPA|[dl]}}. The former derives from historic *xl, the latter from *kð and *gð; these sequences have largely merged with simple *l. This is productive; ð in verbs may become l when prefixed with k. The r is apparently an approximant like English {{IPA|[ɹ]}}. Br is most common in first-person forms of verbs beginning with ð, where the 1sg agent prefix w(a)- assimilates to {{IPA|[b]}} before the ð, and indeed this was written bth in the 1930s. However, in rarer cases the origin of br is opaque. References1. ^{{OED|Osage}} 2. ^Unicode version 9.0.0{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} 3. ^{{Cite web |title = Osage Nation Language Welcome Page |work = Osage Nation |accessdate = 2012-09-22 |url = http://www.osagetribe.com/language/welcome_sub_page.aspx?subpage_id=1 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121018151553/http://www.osagetribe.com/language/welcome_sub_page.aspx?subpage_id=1 |archive-date = 2012-10-18 |dead-url = yes |df = }} 4. ^{{Cite web |title = Dhegiha Gathering Agenda, 2012 |accessdate = 2012-09-22 |url = http://www.osagetribe.com/language/uploads/2ndAnnual-Agenda20120724.pdf |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130606080511/http://www.osagetribe.com/language/uploads/2ndAnnual-Agenda20120724.pdf |archivedate = 2013-06-06 |df = }} 5. ^{{Cite web|title = Fluent Osage Speakers are a Priority for Osage Nation|url = http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2015/03/02/fluent-osage-speakers-are-priority-osage-nation-159428|website = Indian Country Today Media Network.com|accessdate = 2015-10-05|last = HorseChief-Hamilton|first = Geneva|date = 2015-03-02}} 6. ^Quintero, 2009, p.xv 7. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite journal|last=Wolff|first=Hans|title=Osage I: Phonemes and Historical Phonology|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|date=April 1952|volume=18|issue=2|pages=63–68|doi=10.1086/464151}} 8. ^1 Quintero, 2009, p.xvi 9. ^Quintero, 2009, p.xvi 10. ^Quintero, 2009, p.xvii 11. ^1 2 Quintero, 2004, p.19 12. ^Quintero, 2004, p.24 13. ^1 Quintero, 2004, p.16 14. ^Quintero, 2009, p.xviii 15. ^Quintero, 2004, p.4
External links{{Portal|Indigenous peoples of North America}}
6 : Osage Nation|Languages of Oklahoma|Native American language revitalization|Endangered indigenous languages of the Americas|Extinct languages of North America|Western Siouan languages |
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