“Animal magnetism”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The vitalist theory attracted numerous followers in Europe and the United States and was popular into the 19th century. Practitioners were often known as magnetizers rather than mesmerists. It was an important specialty in medicine for about 75 years from its beginnings in 1779, and continued to have some influence for another 50 years. Hundreds of books were written on the subject between 1766 and 1925, but it is almost entirely forgotten today.^[2] Mesmerism is still practised as a form of alternative medicine in some countries, but magnetic practices are not recognized as part of medical science.

Etymology and definitions

"Magnetizer"

The terms "magnetizer" and "mesmerizer" have been applied to people who study and practice animal magnetism.^[3] These terms have been distinguished from "mesmerist" and "magnetist", which are regarded as denoting those who study animal magnetism without being practitioners;^[4] and from "hypnotist", someone who practises hypnosis.^[4]

The etymology of the word magnetizer comes from the French "magnetiseur" ("practicing the methods of mesmerism"),^[3] which in turn is derived from the French verb magnetiser.^[5] The term refers to an individual who has the power to manipulate the "magnetic fluid"^[6] with effects upon other people present that were regarded as analogous to magnetic effects.^[7] This sense of the term is found, for example, in the expression of Antoine Joseph Gorsas: "The magnetizer is the imam of vital energy".^[8]

"Mesmerism"

A tendency emerged amongst British magnetizers to call their clinical techniques "mesmerism"; they wanted to distance themselves from the theoretical orientation of animal magnetism that was based on the concept of "magnetic fluid". At the time, some magnetizers attempted to channel what they thought was a magnetic "fluid", and sometimes they attempted this with a "laying on of hands". Reported effects included various feelings: intense heat, trembling, trances, and seizures.^[9]

Many practitioners took a scientific approach, such as Joseph Philippe François Deleuze (1753–1835), a French physician, anatomist, gynecologist, and physicist. One of his pupils was Théodore Léger (1799–1853), who wrote that the label "mesmerism" was "most improper".^[10] (Léger moved to Texas around 1836).

Noting that, by 1846, the term "galvanism" had been replaced by "electricity", Léger wrote that year:^[10]

Royal Commission

In 1784 a French Royal Commission appointed by Louis XVI studied Mesmer's magnetic fluid theory to try to establish it by scientific evidence. The commission included Majault, Benjamin Franklin, Jean Sylvain Bailly, Jean-Baptiste Le Roy, Sallin, Jean Darcet, de Borey, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, Antoine Lavoisier, Poissonnier, Caille, Mauduyt de la Varenne, Andry, and de Jussieu.

Whilst the commission agreed that the cures claimed by Mesmer were indeed cures{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}, it also concluded there was no evidence of the existence of his "magnetic fluid", and that its effects derived from either the imaginations of its subjects or charlatanry.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}

Royal Academy investigation

A second investigating committee, appointed by a majority vote in 1826 in The Royal Academy of Medicine in Paris, studied the effects and clinical potentials of the mesmeric procedure - without trying to establish the physical nature of any magnetic fluidum. The report says:

... we may conclude with certainty that this state exists, when it gives rise to the development of new faculties, which have been designated by the names of clairvoyance; intuition; internal prevision; or when it produces great changes in the physical economy, such as insensibility; a sudden and considerable increase of strength; and when these effects cannot be referred to any other cause.

... We can not only act upon the magnetized person, but even place him in a complete state of somnambulism, and bring him out of it without his knowledge, out of his sight, at a certain distance, and with doors intervening.

... The greater number of the somnambulists whom we have seen, were completely insensible ... we might pinch their skin, so as to leave a mark, prick them with pins under the nails, &c. without producing any pain, without even their perceiving it. Finally, we saw one who was insensible to one of the most painful operations in surgery, and who did not manifest the slightest emotion in her countenance, her pulse, or her respiration.

... Magnetism is as intense, and as speedily felt, at a distance of six feet as of six inches; and the phenomena developed are the same in both cases.

...Magnetism ought to be allowed a place within the circle of medical sciences...^[12]}}

Mesmerism and hypnotism

Hypnotism, a designation coined by the Scottish surgeon, James Braid,^[15] originates in Braid's response to an 1841 exhibition of "animal magnetism", by Charles Lafontaine, in Manchester.^[16] Writing in 1851, Braid was adamant that, in the absence of the sorts of "higher phenomena" reportedly produced by the mesmerists,

Vital fluid and animal magnetism

According to an anonymous writer of a series of letters published by editor John Pearson in 1790, animal magnetism can cause a wide range of effects ranging from vomiting to what is termed the "crisis". The purpose of the treatment (inducing the "crisis") was to shock the body into convulsion in order to remove obstructions in the humoral system that were causing sicknesses.^[19] Furthermore, this anonymous supporter of the animal magnetism theory purported that the "crisis" created two effects: first, a state in which the "[individual who is] completely reduced under Magnetic influence, although he should seem to be possessed of his senses, yet he ceases to be an accountable creature",^[20] and a second "remarkable" state, which would be "conferred upon the [magnetized] subject … [namely] that of perfect and unobstructed vision … in other words, all opacity is removed, and every object becomes luminous and transparent".^[21] A patient under crisis was believed to be able to see through the body and find the cause of illness, either in themselves or in other patients.

The Marquis of Puységur's miraculous healing of a young man named Victor in 1784 was attributed to, and used as evidence in support of, this "crisis" treatment. The Marquis was allegedly able to hypnotize Victor and, while hypnotized, Victor was said to have been able to speak articulately and diagnose his own sickness.

Jacob Melo discusses in his books some mechanisms by which the perceived effects of animal magnetism have been claimed to operate.^[22]

Social skepticism in the Romantic Era

The study of animal magnetism spurred the creation of the Societies of Harmony in France, where members paid to join and learn the practice of magnetism. Doctor John Bell was a member of the Philosophical Harmonic Society of Paris, and was certified by the society to lecture and teach on animal magnetism in England.^[23] The existence of the societies transformed animal magnetism into a secretive art, where its practitioners and lecturers did not reveal the techniques of the practice based on the society members that have paid for instruction, veiling the idea that it was unfair to reveal the practice to others for free.^[24] Although the heightened secrecy of the practice contributed to the skepticism about it, many supporters and practitioners of animal magnetism touted the ease and possibility for everyone to acquire the skills to perform its techniques.^[25]

Popularization of animal magnetism was denounced and ridiculed by newspaper journals and theatre during the Romantic Era. Many deemed animal magnetism to be nothing more than a theatrical falsity or quackery. In a 1790 publication, an editor presented a series of letters written by an avid supporter of animal magnetism and included his own thoughts in an appendix stating:

“No fanatics ever divulged notions more wild and extravagant; no impudent empiric ever retailed promises more preposterous, or histories of cures more devoid of reality, than the tribe of magnetisers.”^[26]

The novelist and playwrighter Elizabeth Inchbald wrote the farce Animal Magnetism in the late 1780s. The plot revolved around multiple love triangles and the absurdity of animal magnetism. The following passage mocks the medical prowess of those qualified only as mesmerists:

Although the doctor's obsession with the use of animal magnetism, not merely to cure but to force his ward to fall in love with him, made for a humorous storyline, Inchbald’s light-hearted play commented on what society perceived as threats posed by the practice.

De Mainanduc brought animal magnetism to England in 1787 and promulgated it into the social arena. In 1785, he had published proposals to the ladies of Britain to establish a "hygean society" or society of health, by which they would pay to join and enjoy his treatments.^[28] As both popularity and skepticism increased, many became convinced that animal magnetism could lead to sexual exploitation of women. Not only did the practice involve close personal contact via the waving of hands over the body, but people were concerned that the animal magnetists could hypnotize women and direct them at will.

Political influence

The French revolution catalyzed existing internal political friction in Britain in the 1790s; a few political radicals used animal magnetism as more than just a moral threat but also a political threat. Among many lectures warning society against government oppression, Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote:

In his article "Under the Influence: Mesmerism in England", Roy Porter notes that James Tilly Matthews suggested that the French were infiltrating England via animal magnetism. Matthews believed that "magnetic spies" would invade England and bring it under subjection by transmitting waves of animal magnetism to subdue the government and people.^[30] Such an invasion from foreign influences was perceived as a radical threat.

Mesmerism and spiritual healing practices

Today, some scholars{{Who|date=November 2018}} believe mesmerism to share a concept of life force or energy with such Asian practices as reiki and qigong. However, the practical and theoretical positions of such practices are on whole substantially different from those of mesmerism.

During the Romantic period, mesmerism produced enthusiasm and inspired horror in the spiritual and religious context. Though discredited as a credible medical practice by many, mesmerism created a venue for spiritual healing. Some animal magnetists advertised their practices by stressing the "spiritual rather than physical benefits to be gained from animal magnetism" and were able to gather a good clientele from among the spiritually inspired population.^[31]

Some researchers, including Johann Peter Lange^[32]^[33] and Allan Kardec,^[34]^[35] suggested that Jesus was the greatest of all magnetizers, and that the source of his miracles was animal magnetism. Other writers, such as John Campbell Colquhoun^[36] and Mary Baker Eddy,^[37] denounced the comparison. Mary Baker Eddy went so far as to claim animal magnetism "lead to moral and to physical death."

Contemporary development

Sporadic research into animal magnetism was conducted in the 20th century, and the results published; for example, Bernard Grad wrote a number of papers related to his observations of "a single, reputed healer, [Hungarian] Oskar Estebany" on the subject.^[38]

Professional magnetizers

In the Classical era of animal magnetism, the late 17th century to the mid-19th century, there were professional magnetizers,^[39] whose techniques were described by authors of the time as particularly effective. Their method was to spend prolonged periods "magnetizing" their customers directly or through "mesmeric magnets". It was observed that in some conditions, certain mesmerizers were more likely to achieve the result than others, regardless of their degree of knowledge.^[4]

See also

Notes

1. ^Wolfart, Karl Christian; Friedrich Anton Mesmer. Mesmerismus: Oder, System der Wechselwirkungen, Theorie und Anwendung des thierischen Magnetismus als die allgemeine Heilkunde zur Erhaltung des Menschen (in German, facsimile of the 1811 edition). Cambridge University Press, 2011. {{ISBN|9781108072694}}. Foreword.
2. ^Adam Crabtree Animal Magnetism, Early Hypnotism, and Psychical Research, 1766–1925 – An Annotated Bibliography {{ISBN|0-527-20006-9}}
3. ^¹Dictionnaire Notre Famille, (1987), Magnetiseur, notrefamille.com. Accessed 19 August 2015
4. ^¹²Hector Durville, Theory and Animal Magnetism procedures, Rio de Jan ed. Léon Denis, 2012 {{ISBN|978-85-7297-510-0}}.
5. ^Thouvenel, Pierre, Mémoire'>et medical physique Paris Ed. Didot Chez le jeune, Quai des Auguftins. (1781) p. 300
6. ^Baron du Potet, Student Handbook Magnetizer , ed. Life – 3rd Edition, 2013
7. ^Franz Anton Mesmer, Memoire sur la découverte du animals magnétisme , 1779, Édition numérique disponible sur Wikisource. Il ya aussi une édition papier chez Allia, 2006 {{ISBN|2844852262}}
8. ^Gorsas, Antoine-Joseph, L'Ane promeneur, 1784, p. 41 and p. 342
9. ^Connor C. (2005). A People's History of Science, Nation Books, pp. 404–5
10. ^¹Léger, 1846, p.14.
11. ^COLQUHOUN, John Campbell, Isis Revelata, Volume 2, p. 199
12. ^COLQUHOUN, John Campbell, Isis Revelata, Volume 2, pp. 283-293
13. ^See Carrer (2004), passim.
14. ^Hull, Clark L. "Hypnotism in Scientific Perspective", The Scientific Monthly 29.2 (1929): p. 156.
15. ^Yeates, (2013), passim.
16. ^Gilles de la Tourette. "The Wonders of Animal Magnetism", The North American Review 146.375 (1888): p.131-132.
17. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=1PQ0AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q&f=false Braid (1850), p.6].
18. ^Wonders and mysteries of animal magnetism displayed; or the history, art, practice, and progress of that useful science, from its first rise in the city of Paris, to the present time. With several Curious Cases and new Anecdotes of the Principal Professors. Eighteenth Century Collections Online. London (1791): pp.11–12
19. ^Pearson (1790), p.12.
20. ^Pearson (1790), pp. 13–15.
21. ^Pearson (1790), p.15.
22. ^Lecture given at the III World Meeting of Magnetizers
23. ^Bell, John, Professor of Animal Magnetism. “The general and particular principles of animal electricity and magnetism, &c. in which are found Dr. Bell's secrets and practice, AS Delivered To His Pupils in Paris, London, Dublin, Bristol, Glocester, Worcester, Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Shrewsbury, Chester, Liverpool, Manchester, &c. &c. Shewing how to Magnetise and Cure different Diseases; to produce Crises, as well as Somnambulism, or Sleep-Walking; and in that State of Sleep to make a Person eat, drink, walk, sing and play upon any Instruments they are used to, &c. to make Apparatus and other Accessaries to produce Magnetical Facts; also to Magnetise Rivers, Rooms, Trees, and other Bodies, animate and inanimate; to raise the Arms, Legs of a Person awake, and to make him rise from his Chair; to raise the Arm of a Person absent from one Room to another; also to treat him at a Distance. All the New Experiments and Phenomena are explained by Monsieur le Docteur Bell, Professor of that Science, And Member of the Philosophical Harmonic Society at Paris, Fellow Correspondent of M. Le Court de Geblin's Museum; and the only Person authorised by Patent from the First Noblemen in France, to teach and practise that Science in England, Ireland, &c.” Price Five Shillings. Eighteenth Century Collections Online. [London](1792): p.2
24. ^Pearson, John (1790). A plain account, p. 6
25. ^“Wonders and mysteries of animal magnetism displayed; or the history, art, practice, and progress of that useful science, from its first rise in the city of Paris, to the present time. With several Curious Cases and new Anecdotes of the Principal Professors.” Eighteenth Century Collections Online. London (1791): p.16
26. ^Pearson, John (1790). A plain account, p. 37
27. ^Inchbald, Elizabeth. Animal Magnetism. p. 9
28. ^Wonders and mysteries of animal magnetism displayed; or the history, art, practice, and progress of that useful science, from its first rise in the city of Paris, to the present time. With several Curious Cases and new Anecdotes of the Principal Professors. Eighteenth Century Collections Online. London (1791): p.7
29. ^Requoted from: Fulford, Tim. "Conducting and Vital Fluid: The Politics and Poetics of Mesmerism in the 1790s", Studies in Romanticism 43.1 (2004): pg.1
30. ^Porter, Roy. "UNDER THE INFLUENCE: MESMERISM IN ENGLAND," History Today 35.9 (1985): pg.28
31. ^Fara. "An attractive therapy: animal magnetism in eighteenth-century England", History of science 33 (1995): pg:142
32. ^LANGE, Johann Peter, A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures: Kings, Ed. C. Scribner & Company, 1872.
33. ^LANGE, Johann Peter, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Io1TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA431&lpg=PA431&dq=Jesus++animal+magnetism&source=bl&ots=I0EDQG5rE_&sig=PShNc3gAGJMjrCNh4iFK6UnHRhA&hl=pt-BR&sa=X&ei=27YeVenXIcifsAXY4IGYCQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=Jesus%20%20animal%20magnetism&f=false The Life of The Lord Jesus Christ: A Complete Critical Examination of the Origin, Contents and Connection of the Gospels, Volume 1], Ed. Smith, English and Company, 1872
34. ^KARDEC, Allan, Genesis – FEB 53 rd Ed. – Cap.XV – Item 1 – p. 273
35. ^KARDEC, Allan, Genesis – FEB 53rd Ed – Cap.XV – Item 2 – pag.274
36. ^COLQUHOUN, John Campbell, [https://books.google.com/books?id=z3lHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Jesus++animal+magnetism&source=bl&ots=NoJe1Z5O7O&sig=5yS--Ry7yRWYz3-tKQg2re_gY48&hl=pt-BR&sa=X&ei=27YeVenXIcifsAXY4IGYCQ&ved=0CDIQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=Jesus%20%20animal%20magnetism&f=false An History of Magic, Witchcraft, and Animal Magnetism, Volume 1], Ed. Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans, 1851.
37. ^Eddy, Mary Baker, "Animal Magnetism Unmasked," Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, Trustees Under the Will of Maker Baker G. Eddy, Boston, 1934. pp.101
38. ^Gauld, (1992), pp.254-255, 647.
39. ^Franklin Rausky, Mesmer ou la révolution thérapeutique ("Mesmer, or the therapeutic revolution"), Paris, 1977
40. ^The Zoist, Facts and Observations on the Mesmeric and Magnetic Fluids. Offprint from The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology and Mesmerism, April 1846