| 词条 | Palenquero | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
|name=Palenquero |nativename= |nation=The Colombian Constitution recognizes minority languages as "official in their territories."[1] |states=Colombia |ethnicity=7,470 (2005)[2] |speakers= 2,788 |date=2005 |ref = [3] |familycolor=Creole |fam1=Spanish Creole |region=San Basilio de Palenque |iso3=pln |glotto=pale1260 |glottorefname=Palenquero |lingua=51-AAC-bc |script = Latin (Spanish alphabet) |map= Colombia - Bolívar - Mahates.svg }}Palenquero or palenque (Palenquero: Lengua) is a Spanish-based creole language spoken in Colombia. Palenquero is the only Spanish-based creole in Latin America.[4] The ethnic group which speaks this creole consisted of 7,470 people in 2005.[5] Palenquero is spoken in Colombia, in the village of San Basilio de Palenque which is southeast of Cartagena, and in some neighbourhoods of Barranquilla, and has existed for approximately three to four centuries.[6] History{{refimprove section|date=November 2018}}The village was formed by escaped slaves (Maroons) and sometimes Native Americans around 1604 under the leadership of Benkos Biojo. These slaves ran from Cartagena, building their own communities to the south.[7] Since many slaves had not been subjected to a lot of contact with people of European descent, the palenqueros spoke Creole languages constructed from the Spanish language and their own African ones. Spanish speakers are usually unable to understand Palenquero, even though Palenquero borrows many lexical elements from the Spanish language. The people of Palenque tend to speak Spanish to outsiders and Palenquero to specific individuals within their community. The speakers kept this language secret from outsiders on purpose. This language is a powerful identity marker for the speakers. It is a way for the people to differentiate themselves from non-speakers. Those who speak both languages can switch from Palenquero to Spanish, and vice versa, making them two distinct languages and not just a dialectical difference. For a long time, individuals who heard this language being spoken thought of it as "broken Spanish". Ten percent of the population under 25 years of age spoke Palenquero in 1998. It is more commonly spoken by the elderly. It's sole substrate is likely the Kikongo language, which is spoken in the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola. Palenquero words like "ngombe", which means cattle, are found in several Bantu languages. GrammarSimilar to several other creole languages, Palenquero grammar lacks inflectional morphology, meaning that nouns, adjectives, verbs and determiners are almost always invariant.[8] GenderGrammatical gender is non-existent, and adjectives derived from Spanish default to the masculine form: lengua africano ‘African language’.[8] PluralityPlurality is marked with the particle ma. (for example: ma posá 'houses' ). This particle is believed to derive from Kikongo, a Bantu language, and is the sole Kikongo-derived inflection present in Palenquero.[9] The younger speakers of Palenquero utilize ma for plurality more so than the speakers that came before them. This particle is usually dropped with cardinal numbers greater than 2: ma ndo baka ‘two cows’ but tresi año ‘13 years’.[8]
VerbsCopulaThere are four copulas in Palenquero: e, ta, jue, and senda. E roughly corresponds to 'ser' in Spanish and is used for permanent states, and ta is similar to the Spanish 'estar' in that it used for temporary states and locatives. Jue is used as a copula for nouns and senda is only found with predicative nouns and adjectives referring to permanent states.[10] Examples:[11]
VocabularySome 300 words of African origin have been identified in Palenquero,[12] with many believed to originate in the Kikongo language. A comprehensive list and proposed etymologies are provided in Moñino and Schwegler's "Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua" (2002). Many of the words that come from African origin, include plant, animal, insect and landscape names.[6] Another handful of words are believed to originate from Portuguese (for example: mai 'mother'; ten 'has'; ele 'he/she'; bae 'go'). Some sample words in Palenque alongside Spanish and English translations include:
SampleThe Lord's Prayer in Palenque:
References1. ^Title 1, Article 10. http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/colombia_const2.pdf 2. ^{{cite web|author1=Ministerio de Cultura|title=Palenqueros, descendientes de la insurgencia anticolonial|url=http://www.mincultura.gov.co/areas/poblaciones/comunidades-negras-afrocolombianas-raizales-y-palenqueras/Documents/Caracterizaci%C3%B3n%20comunidad%20palequera.pdf|pages=1|date=2010}} 3. ^{{cite web|author1=Ministerio de Cultura|title=Palenqueros, descendientes de la insurgencia anticolonial|url=http://www.mincultura.gov.co/areas/poblaciones/comunidades-negras-afrocolombianas-raizales-y-palenqueras/Documents/Caracterizaci%C3%B3n%20comunidad%20palequera.pdf|pages=2|date=2010}} 4. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/18/world/americas/18colombia.html |title=San Basilio de Palenque Journal - A Language, Not Quite Spanish, With African Echoes - NYTimes.com |publisher=www.nytimes.com |accessdate=2010-02-13 | first=Simon | last=Romero | date=2007-10-18}} 5. ^{{cite web|author1=Ministerio de Cultura|title=Palenqueros, descendientes de la insurgencia anticolonial|url=http://www.mincultura.gov.co/areas/poblaciones/comunidades-negras-afrocolombianas-raizales-y-palenqueras/Documents/Caracterizaci%C3%B3n%20comunidad%20palequera.pdf|pages=1|date=2010}} 6. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Bickerton|first=Derek|last2=Escalante|first2=Aquilas|date=January 1970|title=Palenquero: A spanish-based creole of northern colombia|journal=Lingua|volume=24|pages=254–267|doi=10.1016/0024-3841(70)90080-x|issn=0024-3841}} 7. ^{{Cite journal|last=Lipski|first=John|date=January 2018|title=Palenquero vs. Spanish negation: Separate but equal?|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2017.12.007|journal=Lingua|volume=202|pages=44–57|doi=10.1016/j.lingua.2017.12.007|issn=0024-3841}} 8. ^1 2 3 {{Cite web|url=https://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/i.e.mackenzie/palenque.htm|title=Palenquero|last=Mackenzie|first=Ian|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}} 9. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=3f2st1vKvMIC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93&dq=kikongo+plural&source=bl&ots=-_ZZElL5hM&sig=e1zT3rBHJS2Mlpe-Sztciekvg6g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj79pmCrpnZAhUGNI8KHSrhBQEQ6AEINjAC#v=onepage&q=kikongo%20plural&f=false|title=Linguistic Simplicity and Complexity: Why Do Languages Undress?|last=McWhorter|first=John H.|date=2011-06-30|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=|isbn=9781934078402|location=|pages=92}} 10. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=L3p9DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA455&lpg=PA455&dq=%22palenquero+possesses+four+copulas%22&source=bl&ots=L4ilX010E5&sig=-XeulU5tOKL_JtpUDH7aQVLVMOM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjG7YWtzaDZAhUML48KHQwMBOgQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=%22palenquero%20possesses%20four%20copulas%22&f=false|title=The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages|last=Ledgeway|first=Adam|last2=Maiden|first2=Martin|date=2016-09-05|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=|isbn=9780191063251|location=|pages=455}} 11. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=mv4iAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69&dq=palenquero+senda&source=bl&ots=QCmyy_1oVy&sig=8F1Mzsrur2UGqguLOQfqRvAgZy0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_hp3w0aDZAhUK3Y8KHQB0CuYQ6AEISDAI#v=onepage&q=ta&f=false|title=Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua|last=Moñino|first=Yves|last2=Schwegler|first2=Armin|date=2002-01-01|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=|isbn=9783110960228|location=|pages=69|language=es}} 12. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=mv4iAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA171&lpg=PA171&dq=el+vocabulario+africano+de+palenque+schwegler&source=bl&ots=QCnuz_2lXz&sig=bTMfgQPi1paIkERRJqK9by-vAmU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiGkMfqmNLaAhUC2o8KHYctDPkQ6AEIYDAQ#v=onepage&q=el%20vocabulario%20africano%20de%20palenque%20schwegler&f=false|title=Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua|last=Moñino|first=Yves|last2=Schwegler|first2=Armin|date=2013-02-07|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=|isbn=9783110960228|location=|pages=171|language=es}} External links
5 : Spanish-based pidgins and creoles|Endangered diaspora languages|Languages of Colombia|Afro-Colombian|Languages of the African diaspora |
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