“Pearl and Hermes Atoll”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The Pearl and Hermes Atoll ({{lang-haw|Holoikauaua}}) is part of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, a group of small islands and atolls that form the farthest northwest portion of the Hawaiian island chain. The atoll consists of a variable number of flat and sandy islets, typically between five and seven. More were noted in historical sources but have since been lost to erosion and rising sea levels.

The atoll is named after the Pearl and the Hermes, a pair of English whaleships that wrecked there in 1822. It has been the site of at least eight known shipwrecks, including the Japanese Wiji Maru, SS Quartette, and most recently the M/V Casitas, which ran aground on the reef in 2005.

The atoll is an important habitat for seabirds, marine life, and invertebrate species. Twenty-two bird species nest and breed on the island, including twenty percent of the world's population of black-footed albatrosses. The atoll has historically been included with the rest of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in conservation efforts. It is included in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, created in 2006.

Geography

The Pearl and Hermes Atoll is the third northernmost atoll of Hawaii, behind Midway and Kure, approximately {{convert|2090|km|0|abbr=on|order=flip}} northwest of Honolulu and {{convert|140|km|0|abbr=on|order=flip}} east-southeast of Midway Atoll.^[1] Like the rest of the Hawaiian Islands, the atoll adheres to the timezone of 00. In total, Pearl and Hermes has about {{convert|80|acres|0|abbr=on|order=flip}} of land and almost {{convert|200000|acres|0|abbr=on|order=flip}} of coral reef habitat.^[1] The fringing coral reef which surrounds the atoll is roughly {{convert|69|km|0|abbr=on|order=flip}} in circumference and open to the west.^[1]

The atoll's land area consists of several small islands which are periodically washed over when winter storms pass, along with several ephemeral sand spits.^[2]^[3] The islets are low and flat, and there are no sources of fresh water on any of them.^[4] As of 2012 according to the United States Geological Survey (USGS) there were five islands: Southeast (the largest),^[3] North, Little North, Grass, and Seal-Kittery.^[5] Earlier sources note the presence of other islets, including a Sand Island and a Bird Island.^[6]

Nomenclature

The Hawaiian-language name for the atoll, Holoikauaua, was established in the late 1990s by the Hawaiian Lexicon Committee following an effort to restore traditional Hawaiian names which had been lost, misspelled, or replaced with foreign names.^[7] Because its original Hawaiian name was not known, the Committee conferred the new name of Holoikauaua to the atoll, in reference to the Hawaiian monk seal which frequents the waters there.{{Sfn|Rauzon|2001|p=34}}

History

Initial discovery

The atoll was discovered in 1822 when the English whaleships Pearl and Hermes ran aground on the surrounding reefs. The two ships had been en route to Japan from Honolulu through the uncharted waters of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Sometime late in the evening of April 24 or early in the morning of April 25, the 258-ton Hermes ran agound on an unseen reef. Shortly thereafter, the 327-ton Pearl also ran aground when it approached to provide assistance.^[8] The combined crews of both ships, some 57 sailors, were marooned on an unspecified island nearby for several months. During that time, James Robinson, a carpenter's mate, directed the construction of a small 30-ton vessel from the wreckage. Some accounts provide the name of the vessel as Drift, while others state it was called Deliverance.^[8]^[9]

On July 1, before the beach-built vessel could be launched, the passing ship Earl of Morby was sighted.^[10] 46 of the sailors took passage on the Earl of Morby, but Robinson and eleven others opted to purchase the vessel they had built and sail it back to Honolulu in the hopes of recovering some of the losses incurred by the wreck.^[1] The sailors managed to sail the small vessel back to the main Hawaiian islands without further loss of life.^[9] They sold it for $2,000 USD. Robinson remained in Honolulu, and founded the James Robinson and Company shipyard there in 1827.^[8]

Entrepreneurs from a rabbit canning business intentionally released rabbits on Southeast Island in 1894, where they devoured all the island's vegetation. This was the first documented instance of mammals being introduced to the atoll.^[12]

The Japanese schooner Wiji Maru crashed on the atoll in 1904, destroying the ship and losing its cargo of feathers. There was no loss of life, however.^[9] In 1916, crew members from the Thetis reported that they had spotted rabbits and Japanese fishing huts on Southeast Island. In 1923, the vessels of the Tanager Expedition stopped at the atoll and killed "all but one rabbit on Southeast Island."^[9]

Exploitation of oysters

In 1927, Captain William Greig Anderson of the Lanikai Fishing Company was fishing for tuna and in the process, discovered beds of black-lip pearl oysters in the atoll.^[13] He reported that they were rich with pearls – the only pearl beds in the United States. Anderson formed a trading company to capitalize on his find. Over the next three years, his trading company harvested some 20,000 pearls from the atoll, with the largest of these having a reported value of US$5,000.^[9] Some 150 tons of oyster shells, valued for their shiny mother-of-pearl, were harvested in the process. They were primarily sold to button manufacturers on the United States mainland.^[13]

In 1929, oyster harvesting in the atoll was made illegal by the government of the Territory of Hawaii.^[14] In 1930, the United States Bureau of Fisheries decided to conduct a thorough study of the atoll, led by Dr. Paul Galtsoff.^[13] The United States Navy loaned the minesweeper ship Whippoorwill for the five-week expedition, which covered the reef's geography, flora, and invertebrate and fish populations. A specific emphasis was placed on the pearl oyster population. Only 470 oysters were found. 320 were collected alive, and 150 were opened for examination. An estimated 10% contained pearls.^[11] Based on those findings, the surveyors concluded that Captain Anderson must have harvested between 150,000-200,000 oysters to obtain his reported 20,000 pearls, which had significantly depleted the oyster beds.^[9]^[13]

The Whippoorwill expedition documented wildlife aside from the oysters: Dr. Galtsoff's report indicated that they had found seals, sharks, sea turtles, albatrosses, booby birds, and numerous species of fish.{{Sfn|Galtsoff|1931|p=54-55}} They did not find any of the trees which Captain Brooks had mentioned in his 1857 report.^[11]

Later wrecks

On December 21, 1952, the SS Quartette, a {{convert|422|ft|m|adj=mid|-long}} liberty ship weighing 7,198 tons, struck the eastern reef of the atoll at a speed of {{Cvt|10.5|kn||0}}. The ship was driven further onto the reef by rough waves and {{Cvt|35|mph|}} winds, which collapsed the forward bow and damaged two forward holds.^[15] The crew was evacuated by the SS Frontenac Victory the following day. The salvage tug Ono arrived on December 25 to attempt to tow the ship clear, but persistent stormy weather forced a delay of the rescue attempt. On January 3, before another rescue attempt could be made, the ship's anchors tore loose and the Quartette was blown onto the reef. It was deemed a total loss. Several weeks later, it snapped in half at the keel and the two pieces sank.^[16] The wreck site now serves as an artificial reef which provides a habitat for many fish species.^[17]

On July 2, 2005, the {{Cvt|145|ft|m}} NOAA chartered research vessel M/V Casitas ran aground on the north end of the atoll.^[18] The ship was carrying large quantities of gasoline, diesel, and oil, which posed a substantial risk of leaking. Leak-prevention and extraction efforts led by the United States Coast Guard (USCG) in conjunction with other federal and state agencies began immediately. Although several people on board were forced to evacuate the ship, there was no loss of life. The initial grounding, combined with the rescue efforts, caused extensive damage to the reef including "breakage of coral heads, scouring of the substrate, and injury to the reef structure itself".^[19] The ship was fully removed from the atoll on August 4, 2005, but was too damaged for salvage. It was towed to northwest of the Pearl and Hermes to a site approved by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), where it was sunk over {{Cvt|7,000|ft|}} deep. Efforts to remove remaining debris and repair the reef are ongoing.^[20]

Site exploration

In 2004, divers from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) located wreckage believed to be from the Pearl during a debris removal dive. They were not able to complete a full survey at the time due to the challenging site environment.^[1] The same dive team also located the wreck site of an unknown fishing vessel during the same trip, which they nicknamed the "Oshima" site as some of the components located were similar to the Japanese "Oshima" design.^[21] Among the components located were "a six-cylinder Atlas Imperial diesel and machinery scatter, propeller shaft and propeller, a marine propulsion plant popular in the early decades of the 20th century." Researchers theorized that the wreckage was an East Asian fishing vessel that struck the reef sometime after 1918, based on the age of the components.^[21]

In 2008, NOAA maritime archaeologists returned to the site of the Hermes to complete the survey begun in 2005. The site was confirmed to be located about {{cvt|400|m|order=flip}} to the west of the Pearl site. A full site plan was completed, and both photographs and high definition video were made. The site contained similar artifacts to those found at the site of the Pearl, including two anchors and four cannons. At least 33 cannonballs were found, stored in linear racks, as well as stores of musket balls. Finally, some 150 iron ballast pieces were found. The extremely scattered state of the wreckage seems to confirm that the Hermes broke apart quickly and scattered with force across the sea floor.^[8]

Flora and fauna

Plant life

The islets of the Pearl and Hermes Atoll support thirteen native plant species and seven introduced species, including coastal grasses, vines, and herbal plants.^[17] Invasive plant species are considered a major conservation issue on the atoll, as they often out-compete and replace native species. As an example, Setaria verticillata, an undesirable noxious weed, has displaced the native grass Eragrostis variabilis on Southeast Island.^[4] An illegal landing by the military in the 1960s brought invasive field mustard seeds from Midway Atoll, which had to be removed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.^[9] The flowering plant Verbesina encelioides has been identified as a major invasive threat since at least 2001. Although it provides food and nesting space for small songbirds, it poses a significant threat of entanglement to native seabirds, so removal is considered a priority for conservation purposes.^[22]

Avian life

The Pearl and Hermes Atoll is an important nesting area for many seabirds. Approximately 160,000 birds from 22 different species are known to live and breed on the Atoll.^[14] Tristram's storm petrels and black-footed albatrosses are among the most prominent. In 2001, it was reported that twenty percent of the world's population of black-footed albatrosses nested on Pearl and Hermes.^[9] Pearl and Hermes also hosts one of two known sites where little terns nest in Hawaii.^[14] In addition, the endangered Laysan finch was introduced to the island in 1967 to provide a backup population of these birds, should a hurricane, disease, rat introduction, or other disaster wipe out the population on the island of Laysan.{{Sfn|Rauzon|2001|p=145}}

Invertebrates

The Pearl and Hermes Atoll provides an extensive and unique habitat for invertebrates, including various sponges and thirty-three species of stony corals.^[17] Some invasive invertebrate species have been found on the reef, including the orange-striped sea anemone, which is native to Japan, and the Christmas tree hydroid, which competes with native invertebrates for space.^[23]

The atoll was once heavily populated with black-lip pearl oysters, but overfishing from 1927–1930 caused the population to crash to only 470 in 1930.^[9] An expedition in 1950 turned up only six live oysters, and another in 1969 only found one.^[9] Surveys in 1994 and 2000 also found only a few oysters, and a full analysis by the NOAA in 2003 concluded that the population has never recovered to pre-harvesting levels.^[13]

Other wildlife

The Pearl and Hermes Atoll supports breeding populations of endangered Hawaiian monk seals and sea turtles. Spinner dolphins are known to mate in the area.^[14] According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, "the atoll has the highest standing stock of fish and the highest number of fish species in the NWHI", including sabre squirrelfish, various eels, Galapagos sharks, Sandbar sharks, giant trevally or ulua, angelfish, āweoweo or Hawaiian bigeyes, parrotfish, and various types of lobsters.^[14] Although they are rare in the rest of the Hawaiian Islands, masked angelfish and Japanese angelfish are common in the Pearl and Hermes Atoll.^[17]

In 2016, scientists from the Bishop Museum, working with the NOAA, described a new species of butterflyfish found off the Pearl and Hermes Atoll, at a depth of {{cvt|180|ft}}. It was named Prognathodes basabei in honor of diver Pete Basabe, who provided support to the dives that first discovered the species.^[24]

Conservation efforts

Threats

Derelict fishing gear (ghost nets) and other types of marine debris have had a major impact on the reefs and associated fauna of the atoll. Efforts have been undertaken to lessen the threat of this growing problem, including attempts at prevention as well as recurring debris removal projects. In 2000, the joint NOAA and NMFS Derelict Fishing Net Removal Project was launched, with the objective of removing fishing debris from the atoll and identifying any non-native species.{{Sfn|See|Godwin|Menza|2009|p=278}} In 2003, 90 tons of marine debris was removed from the Pearl and Hermes reefs.^[17] In 2014, a net tangle weighing {{cvt|11.5|ST}} was located in the atoll. It was {{cvt|28|ft}} long, {{cvt|7|ft}} wide, and {{cvt|16|ft}} deep, and took three days to dismantle and remove.^[27]

Rising sea level is also a major concern for the atoll due to the extremely low elevation of most of the islands. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency projects that sea level will rise {{Convert|13-16|in|cm|0}} by 2100. Southeast Island is only {{Convert|3|ft||0}} above sea level, and would be almost entirely submerged if sea levels rise that much. The other islets would also lose significant amounts of land area.^[4]

Climate

Because there are no weather stations on the Pearl and Hermes Atoll, the following climate information is taken from sources for the Midway Atoll, which is approximately {{cvt|87|mi}} north-northwest of Pearl and Hermes. Like Midway, Pearl and Hermes has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen classification Aw). The atoll has no cold season. Its wet season corresponds to the high-sun months, and its dry season corresponds to the low-sun months.^[28] {{Weather box|location=Pearl and Hermes Atoll|single line=yes|Jan record high F=80|Feb record high F=81|Mar record high F=81|Apr record high F=82|May record high F=87|Jun record high F=89|Jul record high F=92|Aug record high F=92|Sep record high F=92|Oct record high F=89|Nov record high F=88|Dec record high F=82|Jan high F=70|Feb high F=70|Mar high F=71|Apr high F=72|May high F=76|Jun high F=81|Jul high F=83|Aug high F=84|Sep high F=84|Oct high F=80|Nov high F=76|Dec high F=73|Jan mean F=66|Feb mean F=66|Mar mean F=67|Apr mean F=69|May mean F=72|Jun mean F=77|Jul mean F=79|Aug mean F=80|Sep mean F=80|Oct mean F=77|Nov mean F=73|Dec mean F=69|Jan low F=62|Feb low F=62|Mar low F=63|Apr low F=64|May low F=68|Jun low F=73|Jul low F=75|Aug low F=75|Sep low F=75|Oct low F=72|Nov low F=69|Dec low F=65|Jan record low F=49|Feb record low F=50|Mar record low F=51|Apr record low F=53|May record low F=55|Jun record low F=61|Jul record low F=63|Aug record low F=64|Sep record low F=64|Oct record low F=59|Nov record low F=55|Dec record low F=51|Jan precipitation inch=5.0|Feb precipitation inch=3.8|Mar precipitation inch=3.0|Apr precipitation inch=2.5|May precipitation inch=2.3|Jun precipitation inch=2.2|Jul precipitation inch=3.3|Aug precipitation inch=4.3|Sep precipitation inch=3.5|Oct precipitation inch=3.5|Nov precipitation inch=3.8|Dec precipitation inch=4.1|Jan precipitation days=16|Feb precipitation days=14|Mar precipitation days=12|Apr precipitation days=11|May precipitation days=9|Jun precipitation days=9|Jul precipitation days=15|Aug precipitation days=15|Sep precipitation days=15|Oct precipitation days=14|Nov precipitation days=14|Dec precipitation days=16|source=Weatherbase^[29]}}

References

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2. ^¹²{{citation|title=Pearl & Hermes Atoll Reserve Preservation Area|url=https://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/PDFs/pearl_hermes.pdf|publisher=Office of National Marine Sanctuaries}}
3. ^¹{{cite web|url=https://products.coastalscience.noaa.gov/collections/benthic/e98nwhi/pearl_hermes.aspx|title=NWHI - Pearl and Hermes Atoll|publisher=National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science|accessdate=November 21, 2017}}
4. ^¹²{{Cite journal|date=October 1, 2005|title=Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Passerines|url=https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/wildlife/files/2013/09/Fact-Sheet-Laysan-Finch.pdf|journal=Hawaii's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy|volume=|page=2|via=Department of Land and Natural Resources of Hawaii}}
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