“Pencil”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

A pencil is an implement for writing or drawing, constructed of a narrow, solid pigment core in a protective casing that prevents the core from being broken and/or marking the user’s hand.

Pencils create marks by physical abrasion, leaving a trail of solid core material that adheres to a sheet of paper or other surface. They are distinct from pens, which dispense liquid or gel ink onto the marked surface.

Most pencil cores are made of graphite powder mixed with a clay binder. Graphite pencils (traditionally known as 'lead pencils') produce grey or black marks that are easily erased, but otherwise resistant to moisture, most chemicals, ultraviolet radiation and natural aging. Other types of pencil cores, such as those of charcoal, are mainly used for drawing and sketching. Coloured pencils are sometimes used by teachers or editors to correct submitted texts, but are typically regarded as art supplies—especially those with waxy core binders that tend to smear when erasers are applied to them. Grease pencils have a softer, crayon-like waxy core that can leave marks on smooth surfaces such as glass or porcelain.

The most common pencil casing is thin wood, usually hexagonal in section but sometimes cylindrical or triangular, permanently bonded to the core. Casings may be of other materials, such as plastic or paper. To use the pencil, the casing must be carved or peeled off to expose the working end of the core as a sharp point. Mechanical pencils have more elaborate casings which are not bonded to the core; instead, they support separate, mobile pigment cores that can be extended or retracted through the casing's tip as needed. These casings can be reloaded with new cores (usually graphite) as the previous ones are exhausted.

History

Camel's hair pencil

Though the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans^[3] and for palm-leaf manuscripts.

Discovery of graphite deposit

As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was Silverpoint until in 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England.^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7] This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form.^[8] Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called plumbago (Latin for "lead ore").^[9]^[10] Because the pencil core is still referred to as "lead", or a "lead", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead,^[11] and the black core of pencils is still referred to as lead, even though it never contained the element lead.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17] The words for pencil in German (bleistift), Irish (peann luaidhe), Arabic (قلم رصاص qalam raṣāṣ), and some other languages literally mean lead pen.

The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required.

The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but graphite for pencils had to be smuggled. The news of the usefulness of these early pencils spread far and wide, attracting the attention of artists all over the known world.{{Citation needed|date=August 2017}} Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland Pencil Museum.^[18] The meaning of "graphite writing implement" apparently evolved late in the 16th century.^[19]

Wood holders added

Around 1560,^[20] an Italian couple named Simonio and Lyndiana Bernacotti made what are likely the first blueprints for the modern, wood-encased carpentry pencil. Their version was a flat, oval, more compact type of pencil. Their concept involved the hollowing out of a stick of juniper wood. Shortly thereafter, a superior technique was discovered: two wooden halves were carved, a graphite stick inserted, and the halves then glued together—essentially the same method in use to this day.^[21]

New pencils from graphite powder, and graphite and clay

The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony.^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25]

English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic Wars; France, under naval blockade imposed by Great Britain, was unable to import the pure graphite sticks from the British Grey Knotts mines – the only known source in the world. France was also unable to import the inferior German graphite pencil substitute. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795, Nicolas-Jacques Conté discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods that were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied. This method of manufacture, which had been earlier discovered by the Austrian Joseph Hardtmuth, the founder of the Koh-I-Noor in 1790, remains in use.^[26] In 1802, the production of graphite leads from graphite and clay was patented by the Koh-I-Noor company in Vienna.^[27]

In England, pencils continued to be made from whole sawn graphite. Henry Bessemer's first successful invention (1838) was a method of compressing graphite powder into solid graphite thus allowing the waste from sawing to be reused.^[28]

The pencil in America

American colonists imported pencils from Europe until after the American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin advertised pencils for sale in his Pennsylvania Gazette in 1729, and George Washington used a three-inch pencil when he surveyed the Ohio Country in 1762.^[29]{{Better source|date=July 2017}} It is said{{by whom|date=October 2010}} that William Munroe, a cabinetmaker in Concord, Massachusetts, made the first American wood pencils in 1812. This was not the only pencil-making occurring in Concord. According to Henry Petroski, transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau discovered how to make a good pencil out of inferior graphite using clay as the binder; this invention was prompted by his father's pencil factory in Concord, which employed graphite found in New Hampshire in 1821 by Charles Dunbar.^[7]

Munroe's method of making pencils was painstakingly slow, and in the neighbouring town of Acton, a pencil mill owner named Ebenezer Wood set out to automate the process at his own pencil mill located at Nashoba Brook. He used the first circular saw in pencil production. He constructed the first of the hexagon- and octagon-shaped wooden casings. Ebenezer did not patent his invention and shared his techniques with anyone. One of those was Eberhard Faber of New York, who became the leader in pencil production.^[30]

By the end of the 19th century, over 240,000 pencils were used each day in the US. The favoured timber for pencils was Red Cedar as it was aromatic and did not splinter when sharpened. In the early 20th century supplies of Red Cedar were dwindling so that pencil manufacturers were forced to recycle the wood from cedar fences and barns to maintain supply.

One effect of this was that "during World War II rotary pencil sharpeners were outlawed in Britain because they wasted so much scarce lead and wood, and pencils had to be sharpened in the more conservative manner – with knives."^[33]

It was soon discovered that Incense cedar, when dyed and perfumed to resemble Red Cedar, was a suitable alternative and most pencils today are made from this timber which is grown in managed forests. Over 14 billion pencils are manufactured worldwide annually.^[35] Less popular alternatives to cedar include basswood and alder.^[33]

In Southeast Asia the wood Jelutong may be used to create pencils (though the use of this rainforest species is controversial).^[34] Environmentalists prefer the use of Pulai – another wood native to the region and used in pencil manufacturing.^[35]^[36]

Eraser attached

On 30 March 1858, Hymen Lipman received the first patent for attaching an eraser to the end of a pencil.^[37] In 1862, Lipman sold his patent to Joseph Reckendorfer for $100,000, who went on to sue pencil manufacturer Faber-Castell for infringement.^[38] In 1875, the Supreme Court of the US ruled against Reckendorfer declaring the patent invalid.^[39]

Pencil extenders

Historian Henry Petroski notes that while ever more efficient means of mass production of pencils has driven the replacement cost of a pencil down, before this people would continue to use even the stub of a pencil. For those who "did not feel comfortable using a stub, pencil extenders were sold. These devices function something like a porte-crayon...the pencil stub can be inserted into the end of a shaft...Extenders were especially common among engineers and draftsmen, whose favorite pencils were priced dearly. The use of an extender also has the advantage that the pencil does not appreciably change its heft as it wears down."^[33] Artists currently use extenders to maximize the use of their colored pencils.

Types

By marking material

By use

By shape

By size

By manufacture

There are also pencils which use mechanical methods to push lead through a hole at the end. These can be divided into two groups: propelling pencils use an internal mechanism to push the lead out from an internal compartment, while clutch pencils merely hold the lead in place (the lead is extended by releasing it and allowing some external force, usually gravity, to pull it out of the body). The erasers (sometimes replaced by a sharpener on pencils with larger lead sizes) are also removable (and thus replaceable), and usually cover a place to store replacement leads. Mechanical pencils are popular for their longevity and the fact that they may never need sharpening. Lead types are based on grade and size; with standard sizes being {{Convert|2.00|mm|abbr=on}}, {{Convert|1.40|mm|abbr=on}}, {{Convert|1.00|mm|abbr=on}}, {{Convert|0.70|mm|abbr=on}}, {{Convert|0.50|mm|abbr=on}}, {{Convert|0.35|mm|abbr=on}}, {{Convert|0.25|mm|abbr=on}}, {{Convert|0.18|mm|abbr=on}}, and {{Convert|0.13|mm|abbr=on}} (ISO 9175-1)—the {{Convert|0.90|mm|abbr=on}} size is available, but is not considered a standard ISO size.{{Citation needed|date=October 2016}}

Pioneered by Taiwanese stationery manufacturer Bensia Pioneer Industrial Corporation in the early 1970s, the product is also known as Bensia Pencils, stackable pencils or non-sharpening pencils. It is a type of pencil where many short pencil tips are housed in a cartridge-style plastic holder. A blunt tip is removed by pulling it from the writing end of the body and re-inserting it into the open-ended bottom of the body, thereby pushing a new tip to the top.

Invented by Harold Grossman^[56] for Empire Pencil Company in 1967 and subsequently improved upon by Arthur D. Little for Empire from 1969 through the early 1970s; the plastic pencil was commercialised by Empire as the "EPCON" Pencil. These pencils were co-extruded, extruding a plasticised graphite mix within a wood-composite core.^[57]

Other aspects

Health

Residual graphite from a pencil stick is not poisonous, and graphite is harmless if consumed.

Although lead has not been used for writing since antiquity, lead poisoning from pencils was not uncommon. Until the middle of the 20th century the paint used for the outer coating could contain high concentrations of lead, and this could be ingested when the pencil was sucked or chewed.^[58]

Manufacture

The lead of the pencil is a mix of finely ground graphite and clay powders. Before the two substances are mixed, they are separately cleaned of foreign matter and dried in a manner that creates large square cakes. Once the cakes have fully dried, the graphite and the clay squares are mixed together using water. The amount of clay content added to the graphite depends on the intended pencil hardness (lower proportions of clay makes the core softer),^[59] and the amount of time spent on grinding the mixture determines the quality of the lead. The mixture is then shaped into long spaghetti-like strings, straightened, dried, cut, and then tempered in a kiln. The resulting strings are dipped in oil or molten wax, which seeps into the tiny holes of the material and allows for the smooth writing ability of the pencil. A juniper or incense-cedar plank with several long parallel grooves is cut to fashion a "slat," and the graphite/clay strings are inserted into the grooves. Another grooved plank is glued on top, and the whole assembly is then cut into individual pencils, which are then varnished or painted. Many pencils feature an eraser on the top and so the process is usually still considered incomplete at this point. Each pencil has a shoulder cut on one end of the pencil to allow for a metal ferrule to be secured onto the wood. A rubber plug is then inserted into the ferrule for a functioning eraser on the end of the pencil.^[60]

Grading and classification

Graphite pencils are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black: the more clay the harder the pencil.^[61]^[62]^[63] There is a wide range of grades available, mainly for artists who are interested in creating a full range of tones from light grey to black. Engineers prefer harder pencils which allow for a greater control in the shape of the lead.

Manufacturers distinguish their pencils by grading them, but there is no common standard.^[64] Two pencils of the same grade but different manufacturers will not necessarily make a mark of identical tone nor have the same hardness.^[65]

Most manufacturers, and almost all in Europe, designate their pencils with the letters H (commonly interpreted as "hardness") to B (commonly "blackness"), as well as F (usually taken to mean "fineness", although F pencils are no more fine or more easily sharpened than any other grade. Also known as "firm" in Japan^[66]). The standard writing pencil is graded HB.^[67]{{efn|This is not related to the Brinell scale hardness unit HB.}} This designation might have been first used in the early 20th century by Brookman, an English pencil maker. It used B for black and H for hard; a pencil's grade was described by a sequence or successive Hs or Bs such as BB and BBB for successively softer leads, and HH and HHH for successively harder ones.^[68] The Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth pencil manufacturers claim to have first used the HB designations, with H standing for Hardtmuth, B for the company's location of Budějovice, and F for Franz Hardtmuth, who was responsible for technological improvements in pencil manufacture.^[69]^[70]

As of 2009, a set of pencils ranging from a very soft, black-marking pencil to a very hard, light-marking pencil usually ranges from softest to hardest as follows:

Numbers as designation were first used by Conté and later by John Thoreau, father of Henry David Thoreau, in the 19th century.^[75]

Although Conté/Thoreau's equivalence table is widely accepted{{cn|date=October 2017}}, not all manufacturers follow it; for example, Faber-Castell uses a different equivalence table in its Grip 2001 pencils: 1 = 2B, 2 = B, 2½ = HB, 3 = H, 4 = 2H.

Pencil hardness test

Graded pencils can be used for a rapid test that provides relative ratings for a series of coated panels but can't be used to compare the pencil hardness of different coatings. This test defines a "pencil hardness" of a coating as the grade of the hardest pencil that does not permanently mark the coating when pressed firmly against it at a 45 degree angle.^[76]^[77] For standardized measurements, there are Mohs hardness testing pencils on the market.

External colour and shape of pencils

The majority of pencils made in the US are painted yellow.^[78] According to Henry Petroski,^[79] this tradition began in 1890 when the L. & C. Hardtmuth Company of Austria-Hungary introduced their Koh-I-Noor brand, named after the famous diamond. It was intended to be the world's best and most expensive pencil, and at a time when most pencils were either painted in dark colours or not at all, the Koh-I-Noor was yellow.

As well as simply being distinctive, the colour may have been inspired by the Austro-Hungarian flag; it was also suggestive of the Orient at a time when the best-quality graphite came from Siberia. Other companies then copied the yellow colour so that their pencils would be associated with this high-quality brand, and chose brand names with explicit Oriental references, such as Mikado (renamed Mirado)^[80]^[81] and Mongol.^[82]^[83]

Not all countries use yellow pencils. German and Brazilian pencils, for example, are often green, blue or black, based on the trademark colours of Faber-Castell, a major German stationery company which has plants in those countries. In southern European countries, pencils tend to be dark red or black with yellow lines, while in Australia, they are red with black bands at one end. In India, the most common pencil colour scheme was dark red with black lines, and pencils with a large number of colour schemes are produced by various companies.{{Citation needed|date = June 2015}}

Pencils are commonly round, hexagonal, or sometimes triangular in section. Carpenters' pencils are typically oval or rectangular, so they cannot easily roll away during work.

Notable pencil users

Manufacturers

The following table lists the prominent manufacturers of wood-cased (including wood-free) pencils around the world.

See also

Notes

References

1. ^{{cite book|title=Oxford English Dictionary|edition=3|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=pencil, n|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary}}
2. ^{{cite book|title=Notes and Queries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnpIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA419|series=3|volume=12|year=1868|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=419|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117163455/https://books.google.com/books?id=UnpIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA419|archivedate=17 January 2018|df=dmy-all}}
3. ^{{cite book|author1=Steven S. Zumdahl |author2=Susan A. Zumdahl |lastauthoramp=yes |title=Chemistry|year=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=978-0-547-12532-9|page=343|chapter=No lead pencils}}
4. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.geog.port.ac.uk/webmap/thelakes/html/lgaz/lk00976.htm |title = Old Cumbria Gazetteer, black lead mine, Seathwaite |year = 2008 |author = Martin and Jean Norgate, Geography Department, Portsmouth University |accessdate = 19 May 2008 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090107062352/http://www.geog.port.ac.uk/webmap/thelakes/html/lgaz/lk00976.htm |archivedate = 7 January 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
5. ^{{Cite book|title=A Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, Western Fells |author=Alfred Wainwright |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7112-2460-5}}
6. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.phy.mtu.edu/~jaszczak/borrowdale.html |title = Graphite from the Plumbago Mine, Borrowdale, England |publisher = Department of Physics at Michigan Technological University |accessdate = 27 March 2008 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080314044343/http://www.phy.mtu.edu/~jaszczak/borrowdale.html |archivedate = 14 March 2008 |df = dmy-all}}
7. ^¹Petroski, 1990, pp. 168, 358
8. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.cumbria-industries.org.uk/wad.htm |title = Lakeland's Mining Heritage |publisher = cumbria-industries.org.uk |accessdate = 27 March 2008 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080315083301/http://www.cumbria-industries.org.uk/wad.htm |archivedate = 15 March 2008 |df = dmy-all}}
9. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.answers.com/topic/plumbago |title = Definition of Plumbago |publisher = Answers.com |accessdate = 21 April 2007 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070813202330/http://www.answers.com/topic/plumbago |archivedate = 13 August 2007 |df = dmy-all}}
10. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/plumbago |title=Definition of Plumbago |publisher=Thefreedictionary.com |accessdate=21 April 2007}}
11. ^The big book of questions and answers, Publications International LTD, (1989), p.189, {{ISBN|0-88176-670-4}}
12. ^{{cite web|title = Why is lead used in pencils even though lead is poisonous?|url = http://sciencequestionswithsurprisinganswers.org/2013/04/04/why-is-lead-used-in-pencils-even-though-lead-is-poisonous/|website = Science Questions with Surprising Answers|accessdate = 5 October 2015|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160305202446/http://sciencequestionswithsurprisinganswers.org/2013/04/04/why-is-lead-used-in-pencils-even-though-lead-is-poisonous/|archivedate = 5 March 2016|df = dmy-all}}
13. ^{{Cite news|title = Ever wondered about the lead in pencils?|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/ever-wondered-about-the-lead-in-pencils/2014/11/26/f8b5869c-548a-11e4-809b-8cc0a295c773_story.html|newspaper = The Washington Post|date = 26 November 2014|access-date = 5 October 2015|issn = 0190-8286|first = Howard J.|last = Bennett|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151106222853/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/ever-wondered-about-the-lead-in-pencils/2014/11/26/f8b5869c-548a-11e4-809b-8cc0a295c773_story.html|archivedate = 6 November 2015|df = dmy-all}}
14. ^{{cite web|title = Pencil swallowing: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia|url = https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002817.htm|website = www.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate = 5 October 2015|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151006022505/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002817.htm|archivedate = 6 October 2015|df = dmy-all}}
15. ^{{cite web|title = graphite pencils {{!}} The Weekend Historian|url = https://umeshmadan.wordpress.com/tag/graphite-pencils/|website = umeshmadan.wordpress.com|accessdate = 5 October 2015|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151007164114/https://umeshmadan.wordpress.com/tag/graphite-pencils/|archivedate = 7 October 2015|df = dmy-all}}
16. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=1586|title=Origins of the Pencil (Circa 1500 – 1565) : HistoryofInformation.com|website=www.historyofinformation.com|access-date=2016-10-29}}
17. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencekids.co.nz/sciencefacts/metals/lead.html|title=Lead Facts - Uses, Properties, Element Pb, Plumbing, Pipes, Weights|website=www.sciencekids.co.nz|access-date=2016-10-29|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030075725/http://www.sciencekids.co.nz/sciencefacts/metals/lead.html|archivedate=30 October 2016|df=dmy-all}}
18. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.pencilmuseum.co.uk/ |title = Keswick Pencil Museum |publisher = Pencilmuseum.co.uk |accessdate = 23 July 2009 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090803153941/http://www.pencilmuseum.co.uk/ |archivedate = 3 August 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
19. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=pencil&allowed_in_frame=0 |title= pencil |author= Douglas Harper |date= 27 June 2012 |publisher= Online Etymology Dictionary |accessdate= 27 June 2012 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20120823161324/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=pencil&allowed_in_frame=0 |archivedate= 23 August 2012 |df= dmy-all }}
20. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.rocketcityspacepioneers.com/space/who-invented-the-pencil |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022205245/http://www.rocketcityspacepioneers.com/space/who-invented-the-pencil |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2011-10-22 |title=Who invented the pencil? |publisher=Rocket City Space Pioneers }}
21. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofscience.com/G2I/timeline/index.php?era=1500 |title=Timeline Outline ViewEra: 1500 - 1550 |publisher=Historyofscience.com |accessdate=18 August 2012}}
22. ^{{cite web|title = Pencil|url = http://www.fact-index.com/p/pe/pencil.html|website = www.fact-index.com|accessdate = 23 November 2015|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120524123804/http://www.fact-index.com/p/pe/pencil.html|archivedate = 24 May 2012|df = dmy-all}}
23. ^{{cite web|title = FREE Essay on The Pencil|url = http://www.directessays.com/viewpaper/64691.html|website = www.directessays.com|accessdate = 23 November 2015|deadurl = yes|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151123135734/http://www.directessays.com/viewpaper/64691.html|archivedate = 23 November 2015|df = dmy-all}}
24. ^{{cite web|title = Pencils|url = https://borrowdalepoints.wordpress.com/2015/02/10/pencils/|website = Borrowdale Points|accessdate = 23 November 2015|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151123161832/https://borrowdalepoints.wordpress.com/2015/02/10/pencils/|archivedate = 23 November 2015|df = dmy-all|date = 2015-02-10}}
25. ^{{cite web|title = Gyaat:The weapon we use from adolescence|url = http://www.gyaat.com/post_view.php?id=16|website = www.gyaat.com|accessdate = 23 November 2015|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151123145543/http://www.gyaat.com/post_view.php?id=16|archivedate = 23 November 2015|df = dmy-all}}
26. ^{{cite book|author=Jeremy Norman|chapter=Invention of Modern Pencil Lead|chapter-url=http://www.historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=1588|title=From Cave Paintings to the Internet|publisher=Jeremy Norman & Co.}}
27. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.koh-i-noor.cz/en/history |title = History of Koh-i-noor Hardmuth company |publisher = Koh-i-noor Hardmuth company |accessdate = 11 September 2015 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150910213838/http://www.koh-i-noor.cz/en/history |archivedate = 10 September 2015 |df = dmy-all}}
28. ^Henry Bessemer (1905) [https://archive.org/details/sirhenrybessemer00bessuoft Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S: An Autobiography], London, Offices of "Engineering," Chapter 3.
29. ^{{cite web|url=http://pencils.com/famous-pencil-users/|title=Famous Pencil Users - Pencils.com|language=en-US|access-date=2016-09-08|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009151127/http://pencils.com/famous-pencil-users/|archivedate=9 October 2016|df=dmy-all}}
30. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.actontrails.org/EAPencils.htm |title = Acton Conservation Lands, Early American Pencils |publisher = Actontrails.org |accessdate = 23 July 2009 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090625130359/http://www.actontrails.org/EAPencils.htm |archivedate = 25 June 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
31. ^{{cite web|url=http://dixonusa.com/index.cfm/fuseaction=history.dixon |title=Joseph Dixon 1799–1869 |publisher=Dixon Ticonderoga Company |accessdate=23 July 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013191609/http://dixonusa.com/index.cfm/fuseaction%3Dhistory.dixon |archivedate=13 October 2007 |df= }}
32. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.thetrustees.org/pages/368_tantiusques.cfm |title = Tantiusques Graphite Mine |publisher = Thetrustees.org |accessdate = 23 July 2009 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090418023739/http://www.thetrustees.org/pages/368_tantiusques.cfm |archivedate = 18 April 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
33. ^¹²{{cite book|title=The Pencil: A History of Design and Circumstance|author=Henry Petroski|year=2010|location=New York, NY|publisher=Random House LLC|isbn=978-0307772435}}
34. ^{{cite news|title=In World Of Politically Right, Pencils Can Be Wrong Stuff|date=1 September 1993|author=Janita Poe|work=Chicago Tribune|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1993-09-01/news/9309010106_1_jelutong-pencils-incense-cedar-institute|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222013536/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1993-09-01/news/9309010106_1_jelutong-pencils-incense-cedar-institute|archivedate=22 February 2014|df=dmy-all}}
35. ^{{cite web|title=Forest Management Public Summary for: PT Xylo Indah Pratama |url=http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/forestry/documents/pt-xylo.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229141343/http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/forestry/documents/pt-xylo.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=29 December 2009 |date=15 March 2000 |publisher=Rainforest Alliance }}
36. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.fantasiapencil.com/aboutus.html|title=Fantasia – The Quality Pencil Company – About Us|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825111536/http://fantasiapencil.com/aboutus.html|archivedate=25 August 2013|df=dmy-all}}
37. ^{{cite web |url=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=19783 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502041232/http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=19783 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2 May 2017 |date=30 March 1858 |title=US Patent 19783 Combination of Lead-Pencil and Eraser |author=L. Lipman |publisher=Patft.uspto.gov |accessdate=23 July 2009}}
38. ^Petroski, 1990, p. 171
39. ^{{cite web |url = http://supreme.justia.com/us/92/347/case.html |title = Reckendorfer v. Faber 92 U.S. 347 (1875) |publisher = Supreme.justia.com |accessdate = 23 July 2009 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090608084015/http://supreme.justia.com/us/92/347/case.html |archivedate = 8 June 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
40. ^{{cite web | url=https://parkerpens.net/liquidlead.html | title=Vintage Pen Blog | publisher=GoPens.com | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906034612/https://parkerpens.net/liquidlead.html | archivedate=6 September 2017 | df=dmy-all }}
41. ^¹²[https://web.archive.org/web/20080609001054/http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/waac/wn/wn19/wn19-3/wn19-308.html Categories of Wax-Based Drawing Media], palimpsest.stanford.edu
42. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.pencilpages.com/articles/carpentr.htm |author = Doug Martin |year = 2000 |title = Carpenter's Pencils |publisher = Pencilpages.com |accessdate = 23 July 2009 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090227043613/http://pencilpages.com/articles/carpentr.htm |archivedate = 27 February 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
43. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20080430183938/http://www.faber-castell.com.au/docs/default-news.asp?id=19463&domid=1010&sp=E&addlastid=&m1=14248&m2=16959&m3=19364&m4=19463 "History Pencils & Historic Packaging"]. Faber Castell Australia
44. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.pencilpages.com/gallery/oldest.htm |title = Oldest Known Pencil in Existence |publisher = Pencilpages.com |accessdate = 23 July 2009 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090220153349/http://pencilpages.com/gallery/oldest.htm |archivedate = 20 February 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
45. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.senato.it/istituzione/108452/152259/genpagspalla.htm |title=L. 6 febbraio 1948, n. 29 |accessdate=1 August 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009001506/http://www.senato.it/istituzione/108452/152259/genpagspalla.htm |archivedate=9 October 2012 }}
46. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.ulta.com/gel-eyeliner-pencil?productId=xlsImpprod4370701 |title=Gel Eyeliner Pencil by ULTA |accessdate=15 November 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117001354/http://www.ulta.com/gel-eyeliner-pencil?productId=xlsImpprod4370701 |archivedate=17 November 2017 |df=dmy-all }}
47. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.mccannas.com/sketch/supply.htm |archive-url = https://archive.is/20130128105255/http://www.mccannas.com/sketch/supply.htm |dead-url = yes |archive-date = 28 January 2013 |title = Art Supplies |publisher = Mccannas.com |accessdate = 23 July 2009}}
48. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.digitalartsonline.co.uk/tutorials/index.cfm?FeatureID=1625 |title = Sketch to Paint in Photoshop |publisher = Digitalartsonline.co.uk |accessdate = 23 July 2009 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090227140128/http://www.digitalartsonline.co.uk/tutorials/index.cfm?FeatureID=1625 |archivedate = 27 February 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
49. ^{{cite web|url=http://smacktalk.smackjeeves.com/03-paperpencilserasers |title=Tools of the Trade Papers Pencils and Erases |publisher=smackjeeves.com |accessdate=23 July 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708213710/http://smacktalk.smackjeeves.com/03-paperpencilserasers |archivedate=8 July 2007 }}
50. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.pencilrevolution.com/2005/10/writing-in-color/ |title = See comment "As a professional copy-editor..." |publisher = Pencilrevolution.com |accessdate = 23 July 2009 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090512082141/http://www.pencilrevolution.com/2005/10/writing-in-color/ |archivedate = 12 May 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
51. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.epinions.com/review/Sanford_Col_erase_Copy_not_colored_pencil_20028_blue/content_285308063364 |title=Sanford Col-Erase Copy Not Pencils-You Can't Copy This Baby! |publisher=Epinions.com |accessdate=23 July 2009 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524004821/http://www.epinions.com/review/Sanford_Col_erase_Copy_not_colored_pencil_20028_blue/content_285308063364 |archivedate=24 May 2008 |df=}}
52. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.penciltalk.org/2006/06/reporter-pencils |title=Paper and Pencil Blog 'Reporter Pencils' |publisher=Penciltalk.org |accessdate=23 July 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728175447/http://www.penciltalk.org/2006/06/reporter-pencils |archivedate=28 July 2014 }}
53. ^World's largest pencil {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081229044243/http://www.pencilpages.com/gallery/largest.htm |date=29 December 2008 }}. The Pencil Pages.
54. ^World’s largest pencil unveiled in New York {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517160754/http://www.srichinmoybio.co.uk/news/ashrita-furman/worlds-largest-pencil-unveiled-in-new-york/ |date=17 May 2017 }}. Sri Chinmoy News.
55. ^World's largest pencil {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105115204/http://www.metacafe.com/watch/835380/worlds_largest_pencil/ |date=5 January 2009 }} (video). Metacafe.com.
56. ^Harold Grossman. US Patent 3,360,489, issued 26 December 1967
57. ^For information about this invention see the writeup on ADL Chronicles The Epcon Plastic Pencil {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708022148/http://adlittlechronicles.blogspot.com/2008/07/epcon-plastic-pencil.html |date=8 July 2011 }}, adlittlechronicles.blogspot.com.
58. ^{{cite journal|date=7 July 1972|title=Pencils, paint and pottery can give you lead poisoning|journal=Life|volume=73|issue=1|page=46|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_1QEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=life+Pencils,+paint+and+pottery+can+give+you+lead+poisoning#v=onepage&q=life%20Pencils%2C%20paint%20and%20pottery%20can%20give%20you%20lead%20poisoning&f=false}}
59. ^{{cite web |publisher=Pencils.com |title=The HB Graphite Grading Scale |accessdate=14 March 2012 |url=http://www.pencils.com/hb-graphite-grading-scale |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321203027/http://www.pencils.com/hb-graphite-grading-scale |archivedate=21 March 2012 |df=dmy-all }}
60. ^Petroski, 1990, "Appendix A
61. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.staedtler.com/upload/graphite_video_eng_16461.mpg |title=Staedtler Pencil, video |accessdate=23 July 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121070208/http://www.staedtler.com/upload/graphite_video_eng_16461.mpg |archivedate=21 January 2013 }} Staedtler.com
62. ^Petroski, 1990
63. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.pencils.co.uk/heritage.aspx?id=6&sid=1 |title=Derwent Manufacturing Process |publisher=Pencils.co.uk |accessdate=23 July 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517110307/http://www.pencils.co.uk/heritage.aspx?id=6&sid=1 |archivedate=17 May 2013 }}
64. ^{{cite web |url=https://pencils.com/hb-graphite-grading-scale |title=Graphite Grading Scales Explained |accessdate=2017-02-05 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206105031/https://pencils.com/hb-graphite-grading-scale/ |archivedate=6 February 2017 |df=dmy-all |date=2014-11-08 }}
65. ^Pencil grades vary "depending upon the manufacturer, when the pencils are made, and the source of graphite and clay. One analyst found that graphitic carbon content, for example, to vary from about 30 to about 65 in a variety of different pencils bearing the same designation." Petroski, 1990, p. 229
66. ^えんぴつのナゾを解く {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003141714/http://www.mpuni.co.jp/museum/qa/mistery05.html |date=3 October 2015 }}. Mitsubishi Pencil Company(in Japanese)
67. ^[https://pencils.com/hb-graphite-grading-scale/ "Graphite Grading Scales Explained"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206105031/https://pencils.com/hb-graphite-grading-scale/ |date=6 February 2017 }}. Pencils.com.
68. ^Petroski, 1990, p. 157
69. ^{{cite web | url=http://www.koh-i-noor.cz/en/interesting-information-about-the-company | title=Interesting information about the company | publisher=Koh-I-Noor Hardtmuth | accessdate=12 October 2016 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013001501/http://www.koh-i-noor.cz/en/interesting-information-about-the-company | archivedate=13 October 2016 | df=dmy-all }}
70. ^{{cite news |last=Norris |first=Mary |authorlink=Mary_Norris_(copy_editor) |url=https://thescene.com/watch/thenewyorker/comma-queen-on-impact |format=Video |title=Comma Queen: On "Impact" |work=The New Yorker |publisher=Condé Nast |date=28 April 2016 |page=2:35 |accessdate=14 May 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605053709/https://thescene.com/watch/thenewyorker/comma-queen-on-impact |archivedate=5 June 2016 |df=dmy-all }}
71. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20071029104124/http://www.koh-i-noor.cz/main/main.php?pageid=3211&lang=4&=&filter=&cat=24&position=30 Koh-i-noor Catalog: Graphite Pencis], koh-i-noor.cz
72. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20081106131833/http://www.mpuni.co.jp/product/category/pencil/uni/spec.html コード表], mpuni.co.jp (Japanese)
73. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.pencils.co.uk/products/derwent.aspx?sid=3&p=1 |title=Derwent Graphic |publisher=Pencils.co.uk |accessdate=23 July 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619105057/http://www.pencils.co.uk/products/derwent.aspx?sid=3&p=1 |archivedate=19 June 2009 }}
74. ^Staedtler Mars Lumograph Pencils {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911035033/http://www.staedtler.com/Mars_Lumograph_gb.Staedtler?ActiveID=2213 |date=11 September 2007 }}. Staedtler.com. Retrieved 5 April 2014.
75. ^Conté used integer numbers that started at 1, with higher numbers indicating softer leads, while Thoreau used higher numbers to designate harder leads (Petroski, 1990, p. 157). It is believed that Thoreau developed independently his method of mixing clay and graphite, and his use of numbers to designate grades is evidence that he was at least aware of Conté methods and tried to reverse engineer them.Thoreau offered pencils graduated from 1 to 4 in the mid-1800s (Petroski, 1990, p. 119), see also {{cite episode | transcripturl=http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi339.htm|transcript=Transcript | series=The Engines of Our Ingenuity |serieslink=The Engines of Our Ingenuity | number=339 | title=Thoreau's Pencils | airdate=1989 | credits=John H. Lienhard | network=NPR | station=KUHF-FM Houston}} uh.edu
76. ^This testing method is approved by the ISO as standard ISO 15184:1998 Paints and varnishes – Determination of film hardness by pencil test [https://www.iso.org/standard/55329.html?browse=tc ISO.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026111219/https://www.iso.org/standard/55329.html?browse=tc |date=26 October 2017 }}. See pra-world.com {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929224302/http://www.pra-world.com/technical/testingphysicalhardness.htm |date=29 September 2007 }} for a description of the test. Unfortunately the hardness of pencils is not standardised. For this reason the standard specifies various brands of pencils that are to be used in this test.
77. ^{{Cite journal |author = Mac Simmons |title = The Pencil Hardness Test |journal = Woodwork |date = April 2000 |page = 76 |url = http://www.pencilpages.com/articles/simmons.htm |accessdate = 13 September 2007 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928042339/http://www.pencilpages.com/articles/simmons.htm |archivedate = 28 September 2007 |df = dmy-all}}
78. ^75% of the 2.8 billion pencils made in the US are painted yellow (Steve Ritter "Pencils & Pencil Lead", Chemical & Engineering News, Volume 79, Number 42 page 35, 15 October 2001). Pubs.acs.org
79. ^Petroski, 1990, pp. 162–163
80. ^Eagle Pencil Company applied for the trademark Mirado in 1947 (US Trademark 71515261). It is common belief that this was an attempt to disassociate the pencil brand from Japan, as one of the meanings of Mikado is emperor of Japan.Petroski states that Eagle Pencil Company changed the name after the Attack on Pearl Harbor.
81. ^Mikado/Mirado pencils were originally made by Eagle Pencil Company—today Berol--but can also be found today under the trademark Papermate and Sanford as Sanford owns Berol and the trademark Papermate Brandnamepencils.com {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929081527/http://www.brandnamepencils.com/brands/eagle/mikado174.shtml |date=29 September 2007 }} Mirado Pencil
82. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.pencilpages.com/gallery/eberhard-faber/mongol.htm |title = Eberhard Faber Pencil Gallery |publisher = Pencilpages.com |accessdate = 23 July 2009 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090408015423/http://www.pencilpages.com/gallery/eberhard-faber/mongol.htm |archivedate = 8 April 2009 |df = dmy-all}}
83. ^Originally made by Eberhard Faber the Mongol trademark is now owned by Sanford Timberlines.blogspot.com {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030943/http://timberlines.blogspot.com/2005/08/mongolized.html |date=4 March 2016 }} Timberlines Blog "Mongolized" 31 August 2005. Retrieved 23 August 2007.
84. ^¹²³⁴{{cite web|work=The Point of it All – History of the Pencil |author=Michael Franco |title=Famous Pencil Pushers |url=http://www.readersdigest.com.au/content/printContent.do?contentId=109024 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617220924/http://www.readersdigest.com.au/content/printContent.do?contentId=109024 |archivedate=17 June 2009 }}
85. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20100526211137/http://www.faber-castell.co.nz/20874/History-Information/History-of-the-Pencil/Faber-Castells-friends/default_news.aspx Faber Castell's friends]. Faber-castell.co.nz
86. ^[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0055708/trivia?tr0701188 The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962) – Trivia – IMDb] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055609/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0055708/trivia?tr0701188 |date=21 September 2013 }}
87. ^{{cite web|url=http://whatshed.co.uk/the-humble-garden-shed-writing-hut-of-roald-dahl/|title=The Humble Garden Shed Writing Hut of Roald Dahl|last=|first=|date=2014-07-07|website=What Shed|publisher=|access-date=2 August 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808035920/http://whatshed.co.uk/the-humble-garden-shed-writing-hut-of-roald-dahl/|archivedate=8 August 2016|df=dmy-all}}