“Personal construct theory”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Kelly explicitly stated that each individual's task in understanding their personal psychology is to put in order the facts of his or her own experience. Then the individual, like the scientist, is to test the accuracy of that constructed knowledge by performing those actions the constructs suggest. If the results of their actions are in line with what the knowledge predicted, then they have done a good job of finding the order in their personal experience. If not, then they can modify the construct: their interpretations or their predictions or both. This method of discovering and correcting constructs is simply the scientific method used by all modern sciences to discover the truths about the universe we live in.

Kelly proposed that every construct is bipolar, specifying how two things are similar to each other (lying on the same pole) and different from a third thing, and they can be expanded with new ideas. More recent researchers have suggested that constructs need not be bipolar.^[4]

The UK Council for Psychotherapy, a regulatory body, classifies PCP therapy within the experiential subset of the constructivist school.

Principles

A main tenet of PCP theory is that a person's unique psychological processes are channeled by the way s/he anticipates events. Kelly believed that anticipation and prediction are the main drivers of our mind. "Every man is, in his own particular way, a scientist," said Kelly, in that he is always building up and refining theories and models about how the world works so that he can anticipate events. We start on this at birth (for example, a child discovers, "if I cry, mother will come") and continue refining our theories as we grow up. We build theories—often stereotypes—about other people and also try to control them or impose on others our own theories so that we are better able to predict their actions.

All these theories are built up from a system of constructs. A construct has two extreme points, such as "happy–sad" and we tend to place people at either extreme or at some point in between. Our mind, said Kelly, is filled up with these constructs, at a low level of awareness. Kelly did not use the concept unconscious; instead, he believed that some constructs are preverbal. A given person or set of persons or any event or circumstance can be characterized fairly precisely by the set of constructs we apply to it and the position of the thing within the range of each construct. So Fred for instance may be just half between happy and sad (one construct) and definitively clever rather than stupid (another construct). The baby above may have a preverbal construct "Comes... doesn't come when I cry".

Constructs are applied to anything we put our attention to, including ourselves, and also strongly influence what we fix our attention on. We construe reality constructing constructs. Hence, determining a person's system of constructs would go a long way towards understanding him, especially the person's essential constructs that represent very strong and unchangeable beliefs; and also the constructs a person applies to him/herself.

Therapy approach

Kelly believed in a non-invasive approach to psychotherapy. Rather than having the therapist interpret the person's psyche, which would amount to imposing the doctor's constructs on the patient, the therapist should just act as a facilitator of the patient finding his or her own constructs. The patient's behavior is then mainly explained as ways to selectively observe the world, act upon it and update the construct system in such a way as to increase predictability. To help the patient find his or her constructs, Kelly developed the repertory grid interview technique.

The repertory grid

To build a repertory grid (a sort of matrix) for a patient, Kelly would first ask the patient to select about seven elements whose nature might depend on whatever the patient or therapist are trying to discover. For instance, "Two specific friends, two work-mates, two people you dislike, your mother and yourself", or something of that sort. Then, three of the elements would be selected at random, and then the therapist would ask:"In relation to… (whatever is of interest), in which way are two of these people alike but different from the third"? The answer is sure to indicate one of the extreme points of one of the patient's constructs. He might say for instance that Fred and Sarah are very communicative whereas John isn't. Further questioning would reveal the other end of the construct (say, introvert) and the positions of the three characters between extremes. Repeating the procedure with different sets of three elements ends up revealing several constructs the patient might not have been fully aware of.

The repertory grid itself is a matrix where the rows represent constructs found, the columns represent the elements, and cells indicate with a number the position of each element within each construct. There is software available to produce several reports and graphs from these grids.

In the book Personal Construct Methodology, researchers Brian R. Gaines and Mildred L.G. Shaw noted that they "have also found concept mapping and semantic network tools to be complementary to repertory grid tools and generally use both in most studies" but that they "see less use of network representations in PCP studies than is appropriate".^[5] They encouraged practitioners to use semantic network techniques in addition to the repertory grid.^[6]

Organizational applications

PCP has always been a minority interest among psychologists. During the last 30 years, it has gradually gained adherents in the US, Canada, the UK, Germany, Australia, Ireland, Italy and Spain. While its chief fields of application remain clinical and educational psychology, there is an increasing interest in its applications to organizational development, employee training and development, job analysis, job description and evaluation. The repertory grid is often used in the qualitative phase of market research, to identify the ways in which consumers construe products and services.

Further reading

{{cite journal |last1=Kuška |first1=Martin |last2=Trnka |first2=Radek |last3=Kuběna |first3=Aleš A. |last4=Růžička |first4=Jiří |date=June 2016 |title=Free associations mirroring self- and world-related concepts: implications for personal construct theory, psycholinguistics and philosophical psychology |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=7 |pages=981 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00981 |pmid=27445940 |pmc=4928535 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Winter |editor1-first=David A. |editor2-last=Reed |editor2-first=Nick |date=2016 |title=The Wiley handbook of personal construct psychology |location=Chichester, UK; Malden, MA |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781118508312 |oclc=913829512 |doi=10.1002/9781118508275 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last1=Salla |first1=Marta |last2=Feixas |first2=Guillem |last3=Ballén |first3=Cristina |last4=Muñoz |first4=Dámaris |last5=Compañ |first5=Victoria |date=January 2015 |title=The couple's grid: a tool for assessing interpersonal construction in couples |journal=Journal of Constructivist Psychology |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=53–66 |doi=10.1080/10720537.2013.859110 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last1=Winter |first1=David A. |last2=Procter |first2=Harry |date=2014 |chapter=Formulation in personal and relational construct psychology: seeing the world through clients' eyes |editor1-last=Johnstone |editor1-first=Lucy |editor2-last=Dallos |editor2-first=Rudi |title=Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy: making sense of people's problems |edition=2nd |location=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=145–172 |isbn=9780415682305 |oclc=894506578 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Caputi |editor1-first=Peter |editor2-last=Viney |editor2-first=Linda L. |editor3-last=Walker |editor3-first=Beverly M. |editor4-last=Crittenden |editor4-first=Nadia |date=2011 |title=Personal construct methodology |location=Malden, MA |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780470770870 |oclc=730906380 |doi=10.1002/9781119953616 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last1=Carrillat |first1=François A. |last2=Riggle |first2=Robert J. |last3=Locander |first3=William B. |last4=Gebhardt |first4=Gary F. |last5=Lee |first5=James M. |date=2009 |title=Cognitive segmentation: modeling the structure and content of customers' thoughts |journal=Psychology and Marketing |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=479–506 |doi=10.1002/mar.20284 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last=Neimeyer |first=Robert A. |date=2009 |title=Constructivist psychotherapy: distinctive features |series=The CBT distinctive features series |location=Hove, East Sussex; New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415442336 |oclc=237402656 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last1=Gabalda |first1=Isabel Caro |last2=Neimeyer |first2=Robert A. |last3=Newman |first3=Cory F. |date=December 2009 |title=Theory and practice in the cognitive psychotherapies: convergence and divergence |journal=Journal of Constructivist Psychology |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=65–83 |doi=10.1080/10720530903400996 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Leitner |editor1-first=Larry M. |editor2-last=Thomas |editor2-first=Jill C. |date=2009 |title=Personal constructivism: theory and applications |location=New York |publisher=Pace University Press |isbn=978-0944473948 |oclc=434613248 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last=Winter |first=David A. |date=September 2008 |title=Cognitive behaviour therapy: from rationalism to constructivism? |journal=European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=221–229 |doi=10.1080/13642530802337959 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last=Stein |first=Miriam |date=June 2007 |title=Nonverbal techniques in personal construct psychotherapy |journal=Journal of Constructivist Psychology |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1080/10720530601074689 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Caputi |editor1-first=Peter |editor2-last=Foster |editor2-first=Heather |editor3-last=Viney |editor3-first=Linda L. |date=2006 |title=Personal construct psychology: new ideas |location=Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0470019436 |oclc=694910981 |doi=10.1002/9780470713044 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last1=Milton |first1=Nick R. |last2=Clarke |first2=David |last3=Shadbolt |first3=Nigel |authorlink3=Nigel Shadbolt |date=December 2006 |title=Knowledge engineering and psychology: towards a closer relationship |journal=International Journal of Human–Computer Studies |volume=64 |issue=12 |pages=1214–1229 |doi=10.1016/j.ijhcs.2006.08.001 |url=http://www.psychology.nottingham.ac.uk/staff/ddc/general/vb/Personal_knowledge.pdf |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor-last=Fransella |editor-first=Fay |date=2005 |title=The essential practitioner's handbook of personal construct psychology |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0470013236 |oclc=694910981 |ref=harv}} This is a concise (abridged) paperback version of {{harvtxt|Fransella|2003}}.

{{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Barbara |last2=Large |first2=Bob |last3=O'Brien |first3=Matthew |date=January 2004 |title=Bridging difference through dialogue: a constructivist perspective |journal=Journal of Constructivist Psychology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=45–59 |doi=10.1080/10720530490250697 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last=Jankowicz |first=Devi |date=2004 |title=The easy guide to repertory grids |location=Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0470854044 |oclc=51984819 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last=Winter |first=David A. |date=2003 |chapter=The constructivist paradigm |editor1-last=Woolfe |editor1-first=Ray |editor2-last=Dryden |editor2-first=Windy |editor3-last=Strawbridge |editor3-first=Sheelagh |title=Handbook of counselling psychology |edition=2nd |location=London; Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher=Sage Publications |pages=241–260 |isbn=978-0761972075 |oclc=52594976 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor-last=Fransella |editor-first=Fay |date=2003 |title=International handbook of personal construct psychology |location=Chichester, UK |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0470847275 |oclc=51178396 |doi=10.1002/9780470013373 |ref=harv|doi-broken-date=2019-02-19 }}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Raskin |editor1-first=Jonathan D. |editor2-last=Bridges |editor2-first=Sara K. |date=2002 |title=Studies in meaning: exploring constructivist psychology |series=Studies in meaning |location=New York |publisher=Pace University Press |isbn=978-0944473573 |oclc=48390934 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Neimeyer |editor1-first=Greg J. |editor2-last=Neimeyer |editor2-first=Robert A. |date=2002 |title=Advances in personal construct psychology: new directions and perspectives |location=Wesport, CT |publisher=Praeger Publishing |isbn=978-0275972943 |oclc=50434439 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last=Yorke |first=Mantz |date=April 2001 |title=Bipolarity... or not?: some conceptual problems relating to bipolar rating scales |journal=British Educational Research Journal |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=171–186 |doi=10.1080/01411920120037126 |jstor=1501708 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Neimeyer |editor1-first=Robert A. |editor2-last=Mahoney |editor2-first=Michael J. |date=1995 |title=Constructivism in psychotherapy |location=Washington, DC |publisher=American Psychological Association |isbn=978-1557982797 |oclc=31518985 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Jeffrey M. |authorlink1=Jeffrey M. Bradshaw |last2=Ford |first2=Kenneth M. |authorlink2=Kenneth M. Ford |last3=Adams-Webber |first3=Jack R. |last4=Boose |first4=John H. |date=1993 |chapter=Beyond the repertory grid: new approaches to constructivist knowledge acquisition tool development |editor1-last=Ford |editor1-first=Kenneth M. |editor1-link=Kenneth M. Ford |editor2-last=Bradshaw |editor2-first=Jeffrey M. |editor2-link=Jeffrey M. Bradshaw |title=Knowledge acquisition as modeling |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=287–333 |isbn=978-0471593683 |oclc=26851198 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last1=Epting |first1=Franz R. |last2=Probert |first2=James S. |last3=Pittman |first3=Stephen D. |date=January 1993 |title=Alternative strategies for construct elicitation: experimenting with experience |journal=International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=79–98 |doi=10.1080/08936039308404333 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last1=Gaines |first1=Brian R. |authorlink1=Brian R. Gaines |last2=Shaw |first2=Mildred L. G. |date=March 1993 |title=Knowledge acquisition tools based on personal construct psychology |journal=The Knowledge Engineering Review |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=49–85 |doi=10.1017/S0269888900000060 |ref=harv|citeseerx=10.1.1.33.2205 }}

{{cite book |last=Winter |first=David A. |date=1992 |title=Personal construct psychology in clinical practice: theory, research, and applications |location=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415005272 |oclc=23082076 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last1=Fransella |first1=Fay |last2=Dalton |first2=Peggy |date=2000 |origyear=1990 |title=Personal construct counselling in action |edition=2nd |location=London; Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=978-0761966142 |oclc=44502510 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last=Riemann |first=Rainer |date=April 1990 |title=The bipolarity of personal constructs |journal=International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=149–165 |doi=10.1080/10720539008412806 |url=https://pub.uni-bielefeld.de/download/1776140/2312073 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last=Soldz |first=Stephen |date=October 1988 |title=Constructivist tendencies in recent psychoanalysis |journal=International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=329–347 |doi=10.1080/10720538808412783 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last1=Mahoney |first1=Michael J. |last2=Lyddon |first2=William J. |date=April 1988 |title=Recent developments in cognitive approaches to counseling and psychotherapy |journal=The Counseling Psychologist |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=190–234 |doi=10.1177/0011000088162001 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Fransella |editor1-first=Fay |editor2-last=Thomas |editor2-first=Laurie F. |date=1988 |title=Experimenting with personal construct psychology |location=London; New York |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |isbn=978-0710210623 |oclc=15855887 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Epting |editor1-first=Franz R. |editor2-last=Landfield |editor2-first=Alvin W. |date=1985 |title=Anticipating personal construct psychology |location=Lincoln |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0803228627 |oclc=11290933 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor-last=Bannister |editor-first=Donald |date=1985 |title=Issues and approaches in personal construct theory |location=London; Orlando, FL |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0120779802 |oclc=10996166 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Epting |editor1-first=Franz R. |editor2-last=Neimeyer |editor2-first=Robert A. |date=1984 |title=Personal meanings of death: applications of personal construct theory to clinical practice |series=Series in death education, aging, and health care |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Hemisphere Pub. Corp. |isbn=978-0891163633 |oclc=9557799 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor1-last=Reason |editor1-first=Peter |editor2-last=Rowan |editor2-first=John |date=1981 |title=Human inquiry: a sourcebook of new paradigm research |location=Chichester, UK; New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0471279358 |oclc=7206012 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Valerie |last2=Stewart |first2=Andrew |last3=Fonda |first3=Nickie |date=1981 |title=Business applications of repertory grid |location=London; New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0070845497 |oclc=8061567 |ref=harv}}

{{cite journal |last1=Gaines |first1=Brian R. |authorlink1=Brian R. Gaines |last2=Shaw |first2=Mildred L. G. |date=July 1980 |title=New directions in the analysis and interactive elicitation of personal construct systems |journal=International Journal of Man–Machine Studies |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=81–116 |doi=10.1016/S0020-7373(80)80038-1 |ref=harv|citeseerx=10.1.1.414.3762 }}

{{cite book |editor-last=Fransella |editor-first=Fay |date=1978 |title=Personal construct psychology, 1977 |series=Second International Congress on Personal Construct Theory |location=London; New York |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0122654602 |oclc=5674889 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor-last=Bannister |editor-first=Donald |date=1977 |title=New perspectives in personal construct theory |location=London; New York |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0120779406 |oclc=10274182 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last1=Fransella |first1=Fay |last2=Bell |first2=Richard |last3=Bannister |first3=Donald |date=2004 |origyear=1977 |title=A manual for repertory grid technique |edition=2nd |location=Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0470854907 |oclc=52587457 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last1=Bannister |first1=Donald |last2=Fransella |first2=Fay |date=1986 |origyear=1971 |title=Inquiring man: the psychology of personal constructs |edition=3rd |location=London; Dover, NH |publisher=Croom Helm |isbn=978-0709939504 |oclc=12583609 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |editor-last=Bannister |editor-first=Donald |date=1970 |title=Perspectives in personal construct theory |location=London; New York |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0120779604 |oclc=131128 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=George |authorlink1=George Kelly (psychologist) |last2=Maher |first2=Brendan A. |date=1969 |title=Clinical psychology and personality: the selected papers of George Kelly |location=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0471563563 |oclc=6272 |ref=harv}}

{{cite book |last=Kelly |first=George |authorlink=George Kelly (psychologist) |date=1991 |origyear=1955 |title=The psychology of personal constructs |location=London; New York |publisher=Routledge in association with the Centre for Personal Construct Psychology |isbn=978-0415037990 |oclc=21760190 |ref=harv}} Originally published as: {{cite book |last=Kelly |first=George |authorlink=George Kelly (psychologist) |date=1955 |title=The psychology of personal constructs |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |oclc=217761}}

Principles

Therapy approach

The repertory grid

Organizational applications

See also

Notes

Further reading

External links