请输入您要查询的百科知识：

　

词条 Pika
释义

  1. Habitat

  2. Characteristics

  3. Activity

  4. Dialects

  5. Lifespan

  6. Species

  7. Extinct pikas

  8. Notes

  9. References

  10. Additional references of the Paleobiology Database

  11. Further reading

  12. External links

{{Distinguish|Pica (disambiguation){{!}}Pica}}{{otheruses}}{{Automatic Taxobox
| name = Pika[1]
| fossil_range =
Miocene–Holocene, {{Fossil range|16.4|0|ref=[2]}}
| image = American pika (ochotona princeps) with a mouthful of flowers.jpg
| image_caption = American pika (Ochotona princeps)
| parent_authority = Thomas, 1897
| taxon = Ochotona
| authority = Link, 1795
| type_species = Ochotona daurica
| type_species_authority = Link, 1795
(Lepus dauuricus Pallas, 1776)
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = See text.
| range_map =
| range_map_caption =
}}

A pika ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|aɪ|k|ə}} {{respell|PY|kə}}; archaically spelled pica) is a small mammal, with short limbs, very round body, rounded ears, and no external tail. They resemble their close cousin the rabbit, but with shorter ears. They live in mountainous countries in Asia, and there are also two species in North America. Most pikas prefer rocky slopes. The large-eared pika of the Himalayas and nearby mountains is one of the highest living mammals; it is found at heights of more than {{convert|6000|m}}. Pikas graze on a range of plants, mostly grasses, flowers and young stems. In the autumn, they pull hay, soft twigs and other stores of food into their burrows to eat during the long, cold winter.[3] The name "pika" is used for any member of the Ochotonidae,[4] a family within the order of lagomorphs; the latter also includes the Leporidae (rabbits and hares). One genus, Ochotona,[4] is recognised within the family, and it includes 30 species. It is also known as the "whistling hare" due to its high-pitched alarm call when diving into its burrow. In the United States, the pika is colloquially called a "coney", a nonspecific term also used for rabbits, hares, and hyraxes.[5] The name "pika" appears to be derived from the Tungus piika[6] and the scientific name Ochotona is from the Mongolian word ogdoi which means pika.[7]

Habitat

Pikas are native to cold climates, mostly in Asia, North America, and parts of Eastern Europe. Most species live on rocky mountainsides, where there are numerous crevices in which to shelter, although some pikas also construct crude burrows. A few burrowing species are native to open steppe land. In the mountains of Eurasia, pikas often share their burrows with snowfinches, which build their nests there.[8] Pikas require cold temperatures to live, and can die if exposed to temperatures above {{convert|77.9|°F}}.[9] Changing temperatures have forced some pika populations to restrict their ranges to even higher elevations.[10]

Characteristics

Pikas are small mammals, with short limbs and rounded ears. They are about {{convert|15|to|23|cm}} in body length and weigh between {{convert|120|and|350|g}}, depending on species. Like rabbits, after eating they initially produce soft green feces, which they eat again to take in further nutrition, before producing the final, solid, fecal pellets. Some pikas, such as the collared pika, have been known to store dead birds in their burrows for food during winter.[11]

These animals are herbivores, and feed on a wide variety of plant matter, including forbs, grasses, sedges, shrub twigs, moss, and lichen. As with other lagomorphs, pikas have gnawing incisors and no canines, although they have fewer molars than rabbits, and have a dental formula of: {{DentalFormula|upper=2.0.3.2|lower=1.0.2.3}}

Rock-dwelling pikas have small litters of fewer than five young, while the burrowing species tend to give birth to more young, and to breed more frequently, possibly due to a greater availability of resources in their native habitats. The young are born after a gestation period of between 25 and 30 days.[8]

Activity

Pikas are diurnal or crepuscular, with higher-elevation species generally being more active during the daytime. They show their peak activity just before the winter season. Pikas do not hibernate, so they generally spend time during the summer collecting and storing food they will eat over the winter. Each rock-dwelling pika stores its own "haypile" of dried vegetation, while burrowing species often share food stores with their burrow mates. Haying behavior is more prominent at higher elevations. Many of the vocalizations and social behaviors that pikas exhibit are related to haypile defense.

Eurasian pikas commonly live in family groups and share duties of gathering food and keeping watch. Some species are territorial. North American pikas (O. princeps and O. collaris) are asocial, leading solitary lives outside the breeding season.

Dialects

Pikas have distinct calls that vary in duration. The call can either be short and quick, a little longer and more drawn out, or they can be songs. The short calls are an example of geographic variation. The pikas determine the appropriate time to make short calls by listening for cues for sound localization.[12] The calls are used for individual recognition, predator warning signals, territory defense, or as a way to attract the opposite sex.[13] There are also different calls depending on the season. In the spring, the songs become more frequent during the breeding season. In late summer, the vocalizations become short calls. Through various studies, the acoustic characteristics of the vocalizations can be a useful taxonomic tool.[14]

Lifespan

The average lifespan in pikas is roughly seven years in the wild. A pika's age is determined by the number of adhesion lines on the periosteal bone on the lower jaw. The lifespan does not differ between the sexes.[15]

Species

There are 30 species listed.

  • Order Lagomorpha[1]
    • Family Ochotonidae: pikas
    • Genus Ochotona
    • Subgenus Pika: northern pikas{{Anchor |Pika (subgenus)}}
    • Alpine pika or Altai pika, Ochotona alpina
    • Helan Shan pika or silver pika, Ochotona argentata
    • Collared pika, Ochotona collaris
    • Hoffmann's pika, Ochotona hoffmanni
    • Northern pika or Siberian pika, Ochotona hyperborea
    • Pallas's pika, Ochotona pallasi
    • American pika, Ochotona princeps
    • Turuchan pika, Ochotona turuchanensis
    • Subgenus Ochotona: shrub-steppe pikas
    • Gansu pika or gray pika, Ochotona cansus
    • Plateau pika or black-lipped pika, Ochotona curzoniae
    • Daurian pika, Ochotona dauurica
    • Tsing-ling pika, Ochotona huangensis
    • Nubra pika, Ochotona nubrica
    • Steppe pika, Ochotona pusilla
    • Afghan pika, Ochotona rufescens
    • Moupin pika, Ochotona thibetana
    • Thomas's pika, Ochotona thomasi
    • Ochotona yarlungensis
    • Ochotona qionglaoensis
    • Subgenus Conothoa: mountain pikas
    • Chinese red pika, Ochotona erythrotis
    • Forrest's pika, Ochotona forresti
    • Gaoligong pika, Ochotona gaoligongensis
    • Glover's pika, Ochotona gloveri
    • Himalayan pika, Ochotona himalayana
    • Ili pika, Ochotona iliensis
    • Koslov's pika, Ochotona koslowi
    • Ladak pika, Ochotona ladacensis
    • Large-eared pika, Ochotona macrotis
    • Muli pika, Ochotona muliensis
    • Black pika, Ochotona nigritia
    • Royle's pika, Ochotona roylei
    • Turkestan red pika, Ochotona rutila
    • Subgenus Alienauroa
    • Ochotona huanglongensis
    • Ochotona xunhuaensis
    • Ochotona sacraria
    • Ochotona flatcalvariam
    • Ochotona dabashanensis

Extinct pikas

There are many known fossil forms of Ochotona described in the literature, from the Miocene epoch to the early Holocene (extinct species) and present (16.4-0 Ma[2]). They lived in Europe, Asia, and North America. Note that some species listed below are common for Eurasia and North America (O. gromovi, O. tologoica, O. zazhigini and probably O. whartoni).

  • Eurasia
    • large forms
    • †Ochotona chowmincheni (China: Baode area, late Miocene)[2][22][23]
    • †Ochotona gromovi (Asia, Pliocene, see also North America)[23]
    • †Ochotona gudrunae (China: Shanxi, early Pleistocene)[2][22][23]
    • †Ochotona guizhongensis (Tibet, late Miocene)[2][23][30]
    • †Ochotona lagreli (China: Inner Mongolia, late Miocene to late Pliocene)[2][22][23][30]
    • †Ochotona magna (China, early Pleistocene)[2][23][37]
    • †Ochotona tologoica (Transbaikalia, Pliocene, see also North America)[2][23][37]
    • †Ochotona transcaucasica (Transcaucasia: eastern Georgia and Azerbaijan, Transbaikal and probably southern Europe, early to late Pleistocene)[2][22][23]
    • †Ochotona ursui (Romania, Pliocene)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona zasuchini (Transbaikalia, Pleistocene)[2][23][37]
    • †Ochotona zazhigini (Asia, Pliocene, see also North America)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona zhangi (China, Pleistocene)[2][23][37]
    • medium-sized forms
    • †Ochotona agadjianiani (Asia, Pliocene)[23]
    • †Ochotona antiqua (Moldavia, Ukraine and the Russian Plain, Caucasus, and probably Rhodes, late Miocene to Pliocene)[2][22][23]
    • †Ochotona azerica (Transcaucasia: Azerbaijan,[58] middle Pliocene)[2][37]
    • †Ochotona lingtaica (Asia, Pliocene)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona dodogolica (Asia: western Transbaikalia, Pleistocene)[22][23]
    • †Ochotona nihewanica (China: Hebei, early Pleistocene)[2][22][23][68]
    • †Ochotona plicodenta (Asia, Pliocene)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona polonica (Europe: Poland, Germany, France, Pliocene)[2][22][23]
    • small-sized forms
    • †Ochotona bazarovi (Asia, upper Pliocene)[2][37][68]
    • †Ochotona dehmi (Germany: Schernfeld, Pleistocene)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona filippovi (Siberia, Pleistocene)[2][68]
    • †Ochotona gracilis (Asia, Pliocene)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona horaceki (Slovakia: Honce, Pleistocene)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona minor (China, late Miocene)[2][23][30]
    • †Ochotona sibirica (Asia, Pliocene)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona valerotae (France: Valerots site, Pleistocene)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona youngi (Asia, Pliocene)[23]
      and others.[2][23]
    • other examples
    • †Ochotona agadzhaniani (Transcaucasia: Armenia, Pliocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona alaica (Asia: Kyrgyzstan, Pleistocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona (Proochotona) eximia (Moldova, Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Miocene to Pliocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona (Proochotona) gigas (Ukraine, Pliocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona gureevi (Transbaikalia, middle Pliocene)[2][37]
    • †Ochotona hengduanshanensis (China, Pleistocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona intermedia (Asia, Pliocene)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona (Proochotona) kalfaense (Europe: Moldova, Miocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona (Proochotona) kirgisica (Asia: Kyrgyzstan, Pliocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona kormosi (Hungary, Pleistocene)[2][22]
    • †Ochotona (Proochotona) kurdjukovi (Asia: Kyrgyzstan, Pliocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona largerli (Georgia, Pleistocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona lazari (Ukraine, Pleistocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona mediterranensis (Turkey, Pliocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona ozansoyi (Turkey, Miocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona pseudopusilla (Ukraine and Russian Plain, Pleistocene)[2][23]
    • †Ochotona spelaeus (Ukraine, late Pleistocene)[2][116]
    • †Ochotona tedfordi (China: Yushe Basin, late Miocene)[2][22]
    • †Ochotona cf. whartoni (Irkutsk Oblast and Yakutia, Pleistocene, see also North America)[23]
    • †Ochotona zabiensis (southern Poland, early Pleistocene)[2][22]
    • †Ochotona sp. (Greece: Maritsa, Pliocene)[23]
    • †Ochotona sp. (Hungary: Ostramos, Pleistocene)[23]
    • †Ochotona sp. (Siberia, Pleistocene)[23]
    • †Ochotona sp. (Yakutia, Pleistocene)[23]
  • North America
    • †Ochotona gromovi (US: Colorado, Pliocene, see also Eurasia)[2]
    • †Ochotona spanglei (US, late Miocene or early Pliocene)[2][23][68][130][131]{{refn|group=n|name=b|Ochotona spanglei in the Paleobiology Database.[131]}}
    • †Ochotona tologoica (US: Colorado, Pliocene, see also Eurasia)[2]
    • †Ochotona whartoni (giant pika, US, Canada, Pleistocene to early Holocene, see also Eurasia)[2][23][68][140][141]{{refn|group=n|name=c|Ochotona whartoni in the Paleobiology Database.[141]}}
    • †Ochotona wheatleyi (US: Alaska, Pliocene, late Pleistocene)[2]
    • †Ochotona zazhigini (US: Colorado, Pleistocene, see also Eurasia)[2]
    • extinct small pikas similar to the O. pusilla group (Pleistocene)[23][68]

Paleontologists have also described multiple forms of pika not referred to specific species (Ochotona indet.) or not certainly identified (O. cf. antiqua, O. cf. cansus, O. cf. daurica, O. cf. eximia, O. cf. gromovi, O. cf. intermedia, O. cf. koslowi, O. cf. lagrelii, O. cf. nihewanica). The status of Ochotona (Proochotona) kirgisica and O. spelaeus is uncertain.[2]

The "pusilla" group of pikas is characterized by archaic (plesiomorphic) cheek teeth and small size.[68]

The North American species migrated from Eurasia. They invaded the New World twice:

  • Ochotona spanglei during the latest Miocene or early Pliocene, followed by an approximately three-million-year-long gap in the known North American pikas record.[23]
  • Ochotona whartoni (giant pika) and small pikas via the Bering Land Bridge during the earliest Pleistocene.[23]
Ochotona cf. whartoni and small pikas of the O. pusilla group are also known from Siberia. The extant, endemic North American species appeared in the Pleistocene. It has been suggested that the North American collared pika (O. collaris) and American pika (O. princeps) descended from the same ancestor as the steppe pika (O. pusilla).[23]

The range of Ochotona was larger in the past, with both extinct and extant species inhabiting western Europe and eastern North America, areas that are currently free of pikas. Pleistocene fossils of the extant steppe pika Ochotona pusilla currently native to Asia have been found also in many countries of Europe from the United Kingdom to Russia and from Italy to Poland, and the Asiatic extant northern pika Ochotona hyperborea in one location in the middle Pleistocene United States.[2]

Other genera of ochotonids (currently living only Ochotonidae) include except Ochotona (pika) extinct †Albertona, †Alloptox, †Amphilagus, †Australagomys, †Austrolagomys, †Bellatona, †Bellatonoides, †Bohlinotona, †Cuyamalagus, †Desmatolagus, †Eurolagus, †Gripholagomys, †Gymnesicolagus, †Hesperolagomys, †Heterolagus, †Kenyalagomys, †Lagopsis, †Marcuinomys, †Ochotonoides, †Ochotonoma, †Oklahomalagus, †Oreolagus, †Paludotona, †Piezodus, †Plicalagus, †Pliolagomys, †Prolagus, †Proochotona (syn. Ochotona), †Pseudobellatona, †Ptychoprolagus, †Russellagus, †Sinolagomys and †Titanomys.[2] The earliest one is Desmatolagus (middle Eocene to Miocene, 42.5–14.8 Ma[2]), usually included in Ochotonidae, sometimes in Leporidae or in neither ochotonid nor leporid stem-lagomorphs.[190]

Ochotonids appeared in Asia between the late Eocene and the early Oligocene, and continued to develop along with increased distribution of C3 grasses in previously forest dominated areas under the "climatic optimum" from the late Oligocene to middle Miocene. They thrived in Eurasia, North America and even Africa. The peak of their diversity occurred during the period from the early Miocene to middle Miocene, most of them became extinct during the transition from the Miocene to Pliocene, what was accompanied by diversity increase in the leporids. It has been proposed that this switch between ochotonids and larger leporids was caused by expansion of C4 plants (particularly the Poaceae) related to global cooling in the late Miocene, since extant pikas reveal a strong preference for C3 plants (Asteraceae, Rosaceae and Fabaceae, many of them C3). Replacement of large areas of forests by open grassland first started probably in North America and is called sometimes "nature's green revolution".[2]

Notes

1. ^1 {{MSW3 Hoffmann|pages=185–193}}
2. ^{{cite book |author= Savage, R.J.G. and Long, M. R.|year=1986 |title= Mammal Evolution: an illustrated guide|publisher= Facts on File|location=New York|pages= 128|isbn= 0-8160-1194-X}}
3. ^{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of animals|last=Walters|first=Martin|publisher=Parragon|year=2005|isbn=978-1-40545-669-2|location=|pages=203|quote=|via=}}
4. ^1 {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Pica (rodent) |display=Pica |volume=21 |page=575 |first=Richard |last=Lydekker}}
5. ^{{cite book|editor1-last=Onions|editor1-first=C. T.|title=The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary|page=420|edition=3|chapter=Cony}}
6. ^{{OEtymD|pika}}
7. ^General pika information {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510133417/http://wildpro.twycrosszoo.org/S/0MLagomorph/Ochotonidae/Ochotona/ochotona_hoffmanni.htm |date=2017-05-10 }}. twycrosszoo.org
8. ^1 {{cite book |editor=Macdonald, D.|author= Kawamichi, Takeo|year=1984 |title= The Encyclopedia of Mammals|publisher= Facts on File|location=New York|pages= 726–727|isbn= 978-0-87196-871-5}}
9. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.fws.gov/nevada/nv_species/pika.html|title=American Pika|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|access-date=2018-11-18}}
10. ^{{Cite journal|last=Erb|first=Liesl P|last2=Ray|first2=Chris|last3=Guralnick|first3=Robert|date=2011-09-01|title=On the generality of a climate-mediated shift in the distribution of the American pika (Ochotona princeps)|journal=Ecology|volume=92|issue=9|pages=1730–1735|doi=10.1890/11-0175.1}}
11. ^Leininger, Charlene (2009) Ochotona collaris {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628150601/http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Ochotona_collaris/ |date=2013-06-28 }}. Animal Diversity Web
12. ^{{Cite journal|title = Geographic Variation in Short Calls of Pikas (Ochotona princeps)|journal = Journal of Mammalogy|date = 1982-02-25|pages = 48–52|volume = 63|issue = 1|doi = 10.2307/1380670|first = Douglas A.|last = Conner|jstor = 1380670|bibcode = 2007JMamm..88..275L}}
13. ^{{Cite journal|last=Trefry|first=Sarah A.|last2=Hik|first2=David S.|date=2009|title=Variation in pika (Ochotona collaris, O. princeps) vocalizations within and between populations|journal=Ecography|volume=33|issue=4|pages=784–795|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.05589.x}}
14. ^{{cite journal|title = Dialects in southern Rocky Mountain pikas, Ochotona princeps (Lagomorpha)|doi = 10.1016/S0003-3472(73)80050-8|volume=21|journal=Animal Behaviour|pages=124–137|year = 1973|last1 = Somers|first1 = Preston}}
15. ^{{Cite journal|title = Age determination in yellow-pine chipmunks (Tamias amoenus): a comparison of eye lens masses and bone sections|journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology|date = 2003-10-01|pages = 1774–1779|volume = 81|issue = 10|doi = 10.1139/z03-173|first = Jennifer M|last = Barker|first2 = Rudy|last2 = Boonstra|first3 = Albrecht I|last3 = Schulte-Hostedde}}
16. ^1 {{cite journal |last=Guthrie |first=R.D. |last2=Matthews |first2=John V. Jr. |year=1971 |title=The Cape Deceit fauna—Early pleistocene mammalian assemblage from the Alaskan arctic |journal=Quaternary Research |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=474–510 |doi=10.1016/0033-5894(71)90060-3 |bibcode=1971QuRes...1..474G }}
17. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 {{cite journal |last=Erbajeva |first=Margarita A. |last2=Mead |first2=Jim I. |last3=Alexeeva |first3=Nadezhda V. |last4=Angelone |first4=Chiara |last5=Swift |first5=Sandra L. |year=2011 |title=Taxonomic diversity of Late Cenozoic Asian and North American ochotonids (an overview) |journal=Palaeontologia Electronica |pages=1–9 |url=http://palaeo-electronica.org/2011_3/25_erbajeva/25_erbajeva.pdf |accessdate=April 13, 2014 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140414125811/http://palaeo-electronica.org/2011_3/25_erbajeva/25_erbajeva.pdf |archivedate=April 14, 2014 |df= }}
18. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 {{cite journal |last=Erbajeva |first=Margarita A. |last2=Mead |first2=Jim I. |last3=Swift |first3=Sandra L. |year=2003 |title=Evolution and development of Asian and North American ochotonids |journal=Occasional Papers in Earth Sciences No. 5 |pages=33–34 |url=http://www.tc.gov.yk.ca/publications/IMC_Program_Abtracts_2003.pdf |accessdate=April 13, 2014 |quote=3rd INTERNATIONAL MAMMOTH CONFERENCE, 2003: PROGRAM AND ABSTRACTS, Edited by John E. Storer |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331063450/http://www.tc.gov.yk.ca/publications/IMC_Program_Abtracts_2003.pdf |archivedate=March 31, 2014 |df= }}
19. ^1 {{cite journal |last=Rekovets |first=Leonid |year=2003 |title=Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) in the periglacial faunas of Ukraine |journal=Occasional Papers in Earth Sciences No. 5 |pages=130–131 |url=http://www.tc.gov.yk.ca/publications/IMC_Program_Abtracts_2003.pdf |accessdate=April 13, 2014 |quote=3rd INTERNATIONAL MAMMOTH CONFERENCE, 2003: PROGRAM AND ABSTRACTS, Edited by John E. Storer |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331063450/http://www.tc.gov.yk.ca/publications/IMC_Program_Abtracts_2003.pdf |archivedate=March 31, 2014 |df= }}
20. ^1 2 {{cite web |url=http://paleobiodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=basicTaxonInfo&taxon_no=49268 |title=Ochotona spanglei Shotwell 1956 |author= |work=The Paleobiology Database |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415211429/http://paleobiodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=basicTaxonInfo&taxon_no=49268 |archivedate=April 15, 2014 |df= }}
21. ^1 2 {{cite web |url=http://paleobiodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=basicTaxonInfo&taxon_no=49269 |title=Ochotona whartoni Guthrie and Matthews, Jr. 1971 (pika) |author= |work=The Paleobiology Database |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140414134356/http://paleobiodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=basicTaxonInfo&taxon_no=49269 |archivedate=April 14, 2014 |df= }}
22. ^1 {{cite journal |last=Shotwell |first=J. Arnold |year=1956 |title=Hemphillian mammalian assemblage from northeastern Oregon |journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=717–738 |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1956)67[717:HMAFNO]2.0.CO;2 }}
23. ^1 2 3 {{cite journal |last=Cai |first=Baoquan |year=1989 |title=Fossil Lagomorpha from the Late Pliocene of Yangyuan and Yuxian counties, Hebei Province |journal=Vertebrata PalAsiatica |volume=XXVII |issue=3 |pages=170–181 |url=http://nau.edu/uploadedFiles/Academic/CEFNS/NATSCI/SESES/Forms/fossillagomorpha.pdf |accessdate=May 20, 2014 |quote=Translated by Will Downs Department of Geology Bilby Research Center Northern Arizona University October, 1990 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305025504/http://nau.edu/uploadedFiles/Academic/CEFNS/NATSCI/SESES/Forms/fossillagomorpha.pdf |archivedate=March 5, 2016 |df= }}
24. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 {{cite journal |last1=Fostowicz-Frelik |first1=Łucja |last2=Frelik |first2=Grzegorz |last3=Gasparik |first3=Mihály |date=October 2010 |title=Morphological phylogeny of pikas (Lagomorpha: Ochotona), with a description of a new species from the Pliocene/Pleistocene transition of Hungary |journal=Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia |volume=159 |pages=97–117 |doi=10.1635/053.159.0107 |jstor=41446115}}
25. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 {{cite journal |last1=Erbajeva |first1=Margarita A. |last2=Zheng |first2=Shaohua |date=30 June 2005 |title=New data on Late Miocene – Pleistocene ochotonids (Ochotonidae, Lagomorpha) from North China |journal=Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia |volume=48A |issue=1–2 |pages=93–117 |url=http://www.isez.pan.krakow.pl/journals/azc_v/pdf/48A%281-2%29/08.pdf |accessdate=May 20, 2014 |doi=10.3409/173491505783995734 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510103159/http://www.isez.pan.krakow.pl/journals/azc_v/pdf/48A%281-2%29/08.pdf |archivedate=May 10, 2017 |df= }}
26. ^1 {{cite journal |last1=Čermák |first1=Stanislav |first2=Ján |last2=Obuch |last3=Benda |first3=Petr |year=2006 |title=Notes on the genus Ochotona in the Middle East (Lagomorpha: Ochotonidae) |journal=Lynx |volume=37 |pages=51–66 |issn=0024-7774 |url=http://www.nm.cz/download/pm/zoo/benda_lit/Cermak2006lynx.pdf |accessdate=May 22, 2014 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522143140/http://www.nm.cz/download/pm/zoo/benda_lit/Cermak2006lynx.pdf |archivedate=May 22, 2014 |df= }}
27. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 {{cite journal |last1=Ge |first1=Deyan |last2=Wen |first2=Zhixin |last3=Xia |first3=Lin |last4=Zhang |first4=Zhaoqun |last5=Erbajeva |first5=Margarita |last6=Huang |first6=Chengming |last7=Yang |first7=Qisen |date=April 3, 2013 |title=Evolutionary History of Lagomorphs in Response to Global Environmental Change |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=8 |issue=4:e59668 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0059668|pages=e59668 |pmid=23573205 |pmc=3616043 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...859668G }} Table_S1.xls {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522194644/http://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/files.figshare.com/1009822/Table_S1.xls |date=2014-05-22 }}
28. ^1 2 {{cite web |url=http://paleobiodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=basicTaxonInfo&taxon_no=42159 |title= Ochotona Link 1795 (pika) |author= |work=The Paleobiology Database}}
29. ^1 {{cite book |last=Hordijk |first=Kees |year=2010 |title=Perseverance of pikas in the Miocene : interplay of climate and competition in the evolution of Spanish Ochotonidae (Lagomorpha, Mammalia) |journal=Geologica Ultraiectina |volume=333 |publisher=Departement Aardwetenschappen |isbn=978-90-5744-194-3 |quote=document type Dissertation full text |df= |hdl=1874/197550 }}
30. ^{{cite journal |last=Barnosky |first=A. D. |last2=Rasmussen |first2=D. L. |date=1988 |title=Middle Pleistocene arvicoline rodents and environmental change at 2900-meters elevation, Porcupine Cave, South Park, Colorado|journal=Annals of Carnegie Museum |volume=57 |issue=12 |pages=267–292 }} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
31. ^{{cite book |last=Belyaeva |first=E. I. |date=1948 |title=Catalogue of Tertiary Fossil Sites of the Land Mammals in the U.S.S.R. }} [M. Uhen/M. Uhen]
32. ^{{cite journal |last=Bonifay |first=M. F. |date=1973 |title=Principaux gisements paleontologiques Francais du Pleistocene Moyen: Essai de classification |journal=Le Quaternaire |pages=41–50 }} [A. Turner/H. O'Regan/H. O'Regan]
33. ^{{cite journal |last=Cai |first=B. |date=1987 |title=A preliminary report on the Late Pliocene Micromammalian fauna from Yangyuan and Yuxian, Hebei |journal=Vertebrata PalAsiatica |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=124–136 }} [A. Turner/H. O'Regan/H. O'Regan]
34. ^{{cite journal |date=2011 |title=Out of Tibet: Pliocene woolly rhino suggests high-plateau origin of Ice Age megaherbivores |journal=Science |volume=333 |issue=6047 |pages=1285–1288 |doi=10.1126/science.1206594 |pmid=21885780|last1=Deng |first1=T. |last2=Wang |first2=X. |last3=Fortelius |first3=M. |last4=Li |first4=Q. |last5=Wang |first5=Y. |last6=Tseng |first6=Z. J. |last7=Takeuchi |first7=G. T. |last8=Saylor |first8=J. E. |last9=Säilä |first9=L. K. |last10=Xie |first10=G. |bibcode=2011Sci...333.1285D }} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
35. ^{{cite journal |last=Erbaeva |first=M. A. |date=1986 |title=The Late Cenozoic Faunistic complexes of Transbaikalia with special reference to the micromammalia |journal=Quatarpalaontologie |volume=6 |pages=25–28 }} [A. Turner/H. O'Regan/H. O'Regan]
36. ^{{cite journal |last=Frazier |first=M. K. |date=1977 |title=New Records of Neofiber leonardi (Rodentia: Cricetidae) and the Paleoecology of the Genus |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=368–373 |doi=10.2307/1379335|jstor=1379335 |bibcode=2007JMamm..88..275L }} [M. Uhen/M. Shalap]
37. ^{{cite journal |last=Gidley |first=J. W. |date=1913 |title=Preliminary report on a recently discovered Pleistocene cave deposit near Cumberland, Maryland |journal=Proceedings of the United States National Museum |volume=46 |issue=2014 |pages=93–102 |doi=10.5479/si.00963801.46-2014.93|hdl=2027/hvd.32044107347718 }} [M. Uhen/M. Shalap/M. Shalap]
38. ^{{cite journal |last=Grady |first=F. |last2=Garton |first2=E. R. |date=2000 |title=Paleontology and historic field trip of the John Guilday Cave Preserve (Trout Rock) |journal=Bulletin – West Virginia Speleological Survey |volume=14 |pages=241–244 }} [M. Uhen/M. Shalap/M. Shalap]
39. ^{{cite journal |last=Guilday |first=J. E. |date=1979 |title=Eastern North American Pleistocene Ochotona (Lagomorpha: Mammalia). Carnegie Museum of Natural History |journal=Annals of Carnegie Museum |volume=48 |issue=24 |pages= }} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
40. ^{{cite journal |last=Harington |first=C. R. |date=1978 |title=Quaternary vertebrate faunas of Canada and Alaska and their suggested chronological sequence|journal=Syllogeus |volume=15 }} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
41. ^{{cite journal |last=Harington |first=C. R. |date=1990 |title=Vertebrates of the last interglaciation in Canada: A review|journal=Geographie Physique et Quaternaire |volume=44 |issue=3 |doi=10.7202/032837ar |pages=375|url=http://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/gpq/1990-v44-n3-gpq1935/032837ar.pdf }} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy/M. Uhen]
42. ^{{cite journal |last=Janossy |first=D. |date=1970 |title=Ein neuer Eomyide (Rodentia, Mammalia) aus dem Ältestpleistozän ("Oberes Villafrankium", Villanyium) des Osztramos (Nordostungarn); (A new Eomyid (Rodentia, Mammalia) from the lowermost Pleistocene (upper Villafranchian) from Osztramos mountain (Northeastern Hungary) |journal=Annales Historico-Naturales Musei Nationalis Hungarici |volume=62 |pages=99–113 }} [J. Alroy/S. Kuemmell/S. Kuemmell]
43. ^{{cite book |last=Janossy |first=D. |date=1986 |title=Pleistocene vertebrate faunas of Hungary |journal=Developments in Palaeontology and Stratigraphy |publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam |volume=8 |isbn=978-0-444-99526-1}} [A. Turner/H. O'Regan/H. O'Regan]
44. ^{{cite journal |author=Jopling, A. V. |date=1981 |title=Stratigraphic, Sedimentological and Faunal Evidence for the Occurrence of Pre-Sangamonian Artefacts in Northern Yukon|journal=Arctic |volume=34 |issue=1 |display-authors=etal |doi=10.14430/arctic2499}} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
45. ^{{cite book |last=Kurten |first=B. |last2=Anderson |first2=E. |date=1980 |title=Pleistocene mammals of North America |isbn=978-0231037334 }} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
46. ^{{cite journal |last=Mead |first=J. I. |last2=Grady |first2=F. |date=1996 |title= Ochotona (Lagomorpha) from late Quaternary cave deposits in eastern North America|journal=Quaternary Research |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=93–101 |doi=10.1006/qres.1996.0009|bibcode=1996QuRes..45...93M }} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
47. ^{{cite journal |last=Qiu |first=Z. |date=1987 |title=Neogene micromammals of China |journal=Whyte, P., Ed. Paleoenvironment of East Asia from the Mid-Tertiary, Second International Conference on the Paleoenvironment of East Asia |volume=77 |issue=1–2 |pages=834–848 }} [W. Clyde/J. Finarelli/W. Clyde]
48. ^{{cite journal |last=Rasmussen |first=D. L. |date=1974 |title=New Quaternary mammal localities in the upper Clark Fork River valley, western Montana |journal=Northwest Geology |volume=3 |pages=62–70 }} [M. Uhen/C. Peredo]
49. ^{{cite journal |last=Sotnikova |first=M.V. |last2=Dodonov |first2=A.E. |last3=Pen'kov |first3=A.V. |date=1997 |title=Upper Cenozoic bio-magnetic stratigraphy of Central Asian mammalian localities |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |volume=133 |issue=3–4 |pages=243–258 |doi=10.1016/s0031-0182(97)00078-3|bibcode=1997PPP...133..243S }} [A. Turner/H. O'Regan/H. O'Regan]
50. ^{{cite journal |last=Terzea |first=E. |date=1996 |title=Biochronology of the Pleistocene deposits at Betfia (Bihor, Romania) |journal=Acta Zoologica Cracovensia |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=531–540 }} [A. Behrensmeyer/H. O'Regan/H. O'Regan]
51. ^{{cite journal |last=Winkler |first=A. J. |last2=Grady |first2=F. |date=1990 |title=The middle Pleistocene rodent Atopomys (Cricetidae: Arvicolinae) from the eastern and south-central United States |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=10 |issue=4 | doi = 10.1080/02724634.1990.10011831 |pages=484–490}} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
52. ^Additional contributors to utilized records of Paleobiology Database (authorizers supplying these records) include John Alroy, Anna Behrensmeyer, Will Clyde, Alan Turner, Mark Uhen.
53. ^{{cite journal |last=Shotwell |first=J. A. |date=1956 |title=Hemphillian mammalian assemblage from Northeastern Oregon|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=67 |issue=6 |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1956)67[717:hmafno]2.0.co;2 |pages=717}} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
54. ^{{cite book |last=Voorhies |first=M. R. |editor-last=Gustavson |editor-first=T. C. |title=Bureau of Economic Geology Guidebook |date=1990 }} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
55. ^Additional contributors to utilized records of Paleobiology Database (authorizers supplying these records) include John Alroy.
56. ^{{cite journal |last=Guthrie |first=R. D. |last2=Matthews, Jr. |first2=J. V. |date=1971 |title=The Cape Deceit fauna—Early pleistocene mammalian assemblage from the Alaskan arctic|journal=Quaternary Research |volume=1 |issue=4 |doi=10.1016/0033-5894(71)90060-3 |pages=474–510|bibcode=1971QuRes...1..474G }} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
57. ^{{cite journal |last=Storer |first=J. E. |date=2004 |title=A Middle Pleistocene (late Irvingtonian) mammalian fauna from Thistle Creek, Klondike Goldfields region of Yukon Territory, Canada |journal=Paludicola |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=137–150 }} [J. Alroy/J. Alroy]
58. ^{{cite journal |last=Tedford |first=R. H. |last2=Wang |first2=X |last3=Taylor |first3=B. E. |date=2009 |title=Phylogenetic Systematics of the North American Fossil Caninae (Carnivora: Canidae) |journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |volume=325 |pages=1–218|doi=10.1206/574.1|hdl=2246/5999 }} [J. Marcot/J. Marcot]
59. ^Additional contributors to utilized records of Paleobiology Database (authorizers supplying these records) include John Alroy, Jonathan Marcot.

References

{{Reflist |30em|refs=[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]
}}

Additional references of the Paleobiology Database

{{Reflist |group=pdb |30em|refs=[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59]
}}

Further reading

  • {{cite book |title=The Little-known Pika |first1=Robert Thomas |last1=Orr |edition=illustrated |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan|year=1977 |isbn=9780025939608}}

External links

{{Commons category|Ochotona}}{{Wikispecies|Ochotona}}
  • The trek of the pika, by Michael Morris, Parks Canada, Mount Revelstoke and Glacier National Parks. (includes sound file)
{{Lagomorpha|O.}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q184067}}{{Authority control}}

2 : Pikas|Extant Burdigalian first appearances
随便看

　

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。

　

Copyright © 2023 OENC.NET All Rights Reserved
京ICP备2021023879号 更新时间：2024/11/11 12:00:43