1. Background

2. Use of Children in Sierra Leone's Civil War
     Recruitment  

3. Reintegration of Child Soldiers
    Primary Organisations Facilitating Reintegration Programs  The United Nations  United Nations Children's Fund  GOAL  Forum for African Women's Educationalists  National Commission for Social Action  The Focus Of These Facilitators  The "DDR" Method  Issues Arising During Reintegration  Psychological Issues  Communication Issues Concerning The Victim's Family  "Re-Victimization"  Avoidance of DDR Programs 

4. Legal proceedings

5. References

6. Bibliography

Child Soldiers in Sierra Leone refers to the roughly 10,000-14,000 children who fought between 1991 and 2002 in the Sierra Leone Civil War. Children fought on both sides of the conflict. Nearly half of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), and a quarter of the governmental armed forces consisted of children aged 8–14 years old.^[1][2]

Background

During the decade-long civil conflict which took place in Sierra Leone between 1991 and 2002, the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), state forces and state-supported militias conscripted children for use in combat. Although the use of children in combat is not new to Sierra Leone,{{sfn|Drumbl|2012|p=70}} the use of child soldiers became widespread during the civil war.{{sfn|Pham|2005|p=108}}{{sfn|Rosen|2012|p=26}}

The RUF kidnapped and forced children to fight from when the civil conflict began, and up to eighty percent of their numbers were aged from seven to fourteen and served in the Small Boys Unit. The state's armed forces, and the militia groups which supported them, also recruited children, which led to an estimated 10,000 children taking part in the conflict.{{sfn|Singer|2006|pp=15–16}}{{sfn|Rosen|2005|p=62}} According to Myriam Denov, up to 30 percent of the children in the RUF were girls.{{sfn|MacKenzie|2012|p=41}} These girls were subject to rape, gang rape and other forms of sexual violence.{{sfn|Denov|2010|p=123}} ^[3] The RUF used alcohol and hallucinogenic drugs on children during training, according to a former RUF commander:

We were very much aware of the effects of drugs on children. Drugs and alcohol were prevalent and served as [a] prerequisite for combat activities. Fighting with a gun is not an easy task because it puts so much pressure on the mind. So we needed to free the mind by taking drugs, and it worked.{{sfn|Denov|2010|p=100}}

The RUF was known for being exceptionally brutal; beheadings, maiming, and mutilation of victims was commonplace. The group has been heavily criticized by human rights groups for their forced conscription of children to use as combatants, their sexual exploitation of children and using children for forced labor.{{sfn|Rosen|2005|p=60}} These children were forced to commit murders, rapes, sexual slavery, mutilations and other forms of human rights abuses.{{sfn|Rosen|2005|p=58}}^[4]

Use of Children in Sierra Leone's Civil War

Recruitment

Economic conditions in Sierra Leone leading up to the war were poor. Many children were forced into the labor market as a condition of necessity, working for their families or for others as a means to collect what income they could.^[5] Child services were greatly underfunded and often non-existent, leaving children with little supervision and lack access to education. Due to economic and political instability, many children ended up on the street, either working for their families, or detached from a family unit. Street children were a primary target for early recruitment by the RUF. Early recruitment tactics included the promise of education and provisions such as food and clothing to street children both inside and neighboring Sierra Leone.^[6] Primarily, recruitment focused on those children whose family structures were poor or absent, promising protection and a sense of community. ^[5]

Reintegration of Child Soldiers

Article 39 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child states that "parties shall take all appropriate measures to promote physical and psychological recovery and social reintegration of a child of victim of...armed conflicts. Such recovery and reintegration shall take place in an environment which fosters the health, self-respect and dignity of the child".^[7] Reintegration programs are facilitated within a human rights framework by non-governmental and governmental organisations. They primarily focus on the needs of the child and often fail to adequately prepare families for receiving and facilitating reintegration of the victim.^[8]

Primary Organisations Facilitating Reintegration Programs

The United Nations

The United Nations (UIN) was influential in ending the hostilities in Sierra Leone. They established the peace-keeping mission, the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL), who assisted the Government of Sierra Leone in implementing the Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) method. The objective of the DDR is to "contribute security and stability in post-conflict environments so that recovery and development can begin".^[9] This system is used in coordination with other political and reconstruction mechanisms to ensure that long-term sustainable reintegration support is provided and to prevent Sierra Leone returning to violent conflict. In March 2004 the Secretary-General of the United Nations proposed that UNAMSIL's mandate be extended to December 2005 due to the fragile nature of the state's Government and concern that they were not ready to assume responsibility for the country's security.^[10]

United Nations Children's Fund

Where ex-soldiers were not able to be reunited with their families or communities, UNICEF was able to provide them with foster homes.^[14]

GOAL

Goal is a non-governmental organisation based in Ireland which is funded by UNICEF.^[15] It operates specifically in Freetown and its reintegration approach is focused on providing informal education, social work, advocacy and health care initiatives to male ex-combatants who are under 18 years old and female victims of sexual abuse.^[16] In some cases they have been confronted with difficulty in attracting female victims to attend informal educational classes. To address this issue, GOAL started distributing food packages to those who attended these programs.

Forum for African Women's Educationalists

National Commission for Social Action

The National Commission for Social Action (NaCSA) is a mandate of the Government Sierra Leone. It provides for reconstruction and relief and focuses on providing development which enables sustainable reintegration. It has established three specific programs: a community based program, public works program and micro finance program. It has played a pivotal role in re-establishing local governments.^[19]

The Focus Of These Facilitators

These organisations primarily include access to:^[20]

• Psychosocial support and care
• Family reunification
• Skills based training
• Health care
• Education
• Vocational training

These programs focus on establishing long-term support networks and reintegration schemes which can continue to sustainably function without the long-term assistance from the third party organisations previously discussed. This long-term vision requires political, economic and social support.^[21]

The "DDR" Method

The process of DDR is broken down into four stages:

• Disarmament: involves collecting, controlling and disposing of weapons and ammunition associated with civilians and combatants. It also creates responsible arms management mechanisms.^[22]
• Demobilization: is the process of formally discharging active combatants from the armed forces or other armed rebel groups they have been associated with. This is a two part journey; part one being the processing of soldiers and part two involves reinsertion of combatants. This process concerns providing assistance to ex-soldiers during the demobilisation phase prior to reintegrating them into society, which is the long-term goal. This assistance is crucial as it satisfies their short-term needs; it predominantly comes in the forms of: clothing, shelter, food, education, employment and health care.^[23]
• Reintegration: is the final stage which enables ex-soldiers to obtain civilian status within the community through reintegrating them economically and socially. This involves entering into sustainable income and employment opportunities which will enable these individuals to support themselves.^[24]

The Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration method has been facilitated by 17,500 peace-keepers.^[25] The initial program was concluded on the 31st of December 2003 and it was estimated that 6,845 ex-soldiers had been demobilised by 2002 and reunified with their families. Female victims equated to an estimated 529 of these children.^[26] In February 2004, the Sierra Leone Government stated that the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone program was complete. It had processed over 75,000 combatants, which included 4,651 women.^[27] It was estimated that nearly 55,000 ex-fighters were given access to the integration benefits previously discussed.^[28]

Another 3000 children were involved in community programs organised by UNICEF ^[29] and 12,000 ex-fighters were processed through formal education schemes.^[30]

The 'DDR' program was adapted in 2006 to formally become the Integrated DDR Standards (IDDRS).

Issues Arising During Reintegration

Psychological Issues

Militant groups including the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) subjected these child soldiers to training methods which hardened them through making them immune to violence. They were taught that this type of heinous behaviour and ideological thinking was a normalised process and they were not allowed to demonstrate remorse for their actions. The RUF instilled the notion that the soldiers should never return home because of the violent atrocities they had carried out against their families and communities.^[31] This invoked severe psychological effects including: anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, hostility and aggression on many of the victims.^[32] However, not all ex-combatants have suffered from these medical issues; some have demonstrated resilient social and mental health functions.^[33]

Communication Issues Concerning The Victim's Family

In some cases victims struggled to communicate their feelings due to the guilt, shame and stigma attached to their experiences. In these situations the severity of their communicative problems were dependent on the victims age, gender and role in the conflict. Issues relating to the communication between victims and their families concerning the severity of the soldiers adolescent experiences were evident during the reintegration process. This issue stemmed from the failure of reintegration programs to successfully prepare and provide caregivers with sufficient preparation for the victims return. These programs tended to focus primarily on the child. It was evident that where caregivers were unable to monitor and understand the severity of the victims exposure to violence, it heavily affected the child's ability to reintegrate into the community.^[34]

"Re-Victimization"

Re-victimization was prevalent within communities in post-conflict Sierra Leone, particularly during support processes and within community reintegration. It is widely recognised that it was more prevalent for females to be subjected to community rejection. Social and economic marginalisation between former female and male combatants was rife. An estimated 1000 women and girls were excluded from DDR programs and are believed to have been living with former rebel combatants.^[35] Females were commonly denied access to DDR programs because of the requirement to hand in a weapon to qualify for assistance. In a UNICEF survey, 46% of those surveyed referenced this as their reason for being excluded from assistance.^[36] Females often did not have access to weapons when they were recruited for roles involving: sexual labour, cooking and porter assistance.^[37] Negative stigma and alienation within communities was frequently experienced by girls who were victims of brutal sexual encounters including Gang rape, violence and "AK-47 Marriages" or "Bush Marriages". These females were labelled as "unmarriageable" because of their exposure to sexual exploitation which often resulted in them losing their virginity before marriage. These girls were also associated with being carriers of HIV and STI's. This label forced females to be excluded socially and economically.^[38] As a result of this "re-victimization" it was common for these females to have no choice but to stay with their rebel "husbands" in order to survive or choose prostitution to generate disposable income to support themselves.^[39] In response to this exclusion, UNICEF established the 'Girls Left Behind Project' which focused on: appropriating services to 1000 females, tracing 65% of their families, educating communities to ensure they did not suffer from further exploitations.

Avoidance of DDR Programs

Some ex-RUF children have evaded the DDR process because they fear that they will be criminally prosecuted for their involvements with the atrocities committed by the RUF and be victims to the negative stigmatisation attached to their actions.^[40] Where children avoid assistance they are often left with no newly acquired skills or financial benefits and are forced to support themselves. Often these individuals become involved with commercial sex labour, crime and drug exploitation to ensure survival.^[41]

Legal proceedings

According to legal scholar Sandesh Sivakumaran, the special court has provided needed clarification over the use of children in combat, and had identified certain actions which could be deemed as illegal with regards to the use of children in combat.{{sfn|Sivakumaran|2010|pp=1033–1034}}

In 2007 the special court passed the first convictions for war crimes during the conflict. Three members of the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) were found guilty of various human rights abuses, which included the recruitment of children for use in combat.{{sfn|Human Rights Watch|2007}}

References

Bibliography

• {{cite book|last=Denov|first=Myriam S.|title=Child Soldiers: Sierra Leone's Revolutionary United Front|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521872249|edition=1st|ref= harv}}
• {{cite book|last=Drumbl|first=Mark A.|title=Reimagining Child Soldiers in International Law and Policy|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199592654|ref= harv}}
• {{cite book|last=MacKenzie|first=Megan H.|title=Female Soldiers in Sierra Leone: Sex, Security, and Post-Conflict Development|year=2012|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0814761373|ref= harv}}
• {{cite news|title=Sierra Leone: Landmark Convictions for Use of Child Soldiers|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2007/06/20/sierra-leone-landmark-convictions-use-child-soldiers|accessdate=17 April 2014|newspaper=Human Rights Watch|date=21 June 2007|ref= {{sfnref|Human Rights Watch|2007}} }}
• {{cite book|last=Pham|first=John-Peter|title=Child Soldiers, Adult Interests: The Global Dimensions of the Sierra Leonean Tragedy|year=2005|publisher=Nova Science Publishers|isbn=978-1594546716|ref= harv}}
• {{cite book|last=Rosen|first=David M.|title=Child Soldiers: A Reference Handbook|year=2012|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1598845266|ref= harv}}
• {{cite book|last=Rosen|first=David M.|title=Armies of the Young: Child Soldiers in War and Terrorism|year=2005|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0813535685|ref= harv}}
• {{cite book|last=Singer|first=Peter W.|title=Children at War|year=2006|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520248762|ref= harv}}
• {{cite journal|last=Sivakumaran|first=Sandesh|title=War Crimes before the Special Court for Sierra Leone|journal=Journal of International Criminal Justice|year=2010|volume=8|issue=4|pages=1009–1034|doi=10.1093/jicj/mqq056|ref= harv}}

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