“Pottery”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Pottery is the process of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired to give them a hard, durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The place where such wares are made by a potter is also called a pottery (plural "potteries"). The definition of pottery used by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), is "all fired ceramic wares that contain clay when formed, except technical, structural, and refractory products."^[1] In archaeology, especially of ancient and prehistoric periods, "pottery" often means vessels only, and figures etc. of the same material are called "terracottas". Clay as a part of the materials used is required by some definitions of pottery, but this is dubious.

Pottery is one of the oldest human inventions, originating before the Neolithic period, with ceramic objects like the Gravettian culture Venus of Dolní Věstonice figurine discovered in the Czech Republic dating back to 29,000–25,000 BC,^[2] and pottery vessels that were discovered in Jiangxi, China, which date back to 18,000 BC. Early Neolithic pottery artefacts have been found in places such as Jōmon Japan (10,500 BC),^[2] the Russian Far East (14,000 BC),^[4] Sub-Saharan Africa and South America.

Pottery is made by forming a ceramic (often clay) body into objects of a desired shape and heating them to high temperatures (1000-1600 degrees Celsius) in a kiln and induces reactions that lead to permanent changes including increasing the strength and solidity of the object's shape.

A clay body can be decorated before or after firing; however, prior to some shaping processes, clay must be prepared. Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body. Air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished either by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also help produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, it is shaped by a variety of techniques. After it has been shaped, it is dried and then fired.

Production stages

Clay ware takes on varying physical characteristics during the making of pottery.

Clay bodies and mineral contents

There are several materials that are referred to as clay. The properties which make them different include:

Decorating and glazing

Pottery may be decorated in many different ways. Some decoration can be done before or after the firing.

Decoration

Glaze

Glaze is a glassy coating on pottery, the primary purposes of which are decoration and protection. One important use of glaze is to render porous pottery vessels impermeable to water and other liquids. Glaze may be applied by dusting the unfired composition over the ware or by spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on a thin slurry composed of the unfired glaze and water. The colour of a glaze after it has been fired may be significantly different from before firing. To prevent glazed wares sticking to kiln furniture during firing, either a small part of the object being fired (for example, the foot) is left unglazed or, alternatively, special refractory "spurs" are used as supports. These are removed and discarded after the firing.

Firing

Firing produces irreversible changes in the body. It is only after firing that the article or material is pottery. In lower-fired pottery, the changes include sintering, the fusing together of coarser particles in the body at their points of contact with each other. In the case of porcelain, where different materials and higher firing-temperatures are used, the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the constituents in the body are greatly altered. In all cases, the object of firing is to permanently harden the wares and the firing regime must be appropriate to the materials used to make them. As a rough guide, modern earthenwares are normally fired at temperatures in the range of about 1,000°C (1,830 °F) to {{convert|1,200|C|F}}; stonewares at between about {{convert|1100|C|F}} to {{convert|1300|C|F}}; and porcelains at between about {{convert|1200|C|F}} to {{convert|1400|C|F}}. Historically, reaching high temperatures was a long-lasting challenge, and earthenware can be fired effectively as low as 600°C, achievable in primitive pit firing.

Firing pottery can be done using a variety of methods, with a kiln being the usual firing method. Both the maximum temperature and the duration of firing influences the final characteristics of the ceramic. Thus, the maximum temperature within a kiln is often held constant for a period of time to soak the wares to produce the maturity required in the body of the wares.

The atmosphere within a kiln during firing can affect the appearance of the finished wares. An oxidising atmosphere, produced by allowing air to enter the kiln, can cause the oxidation of clays and glazes. A reducing atmosphere, produced by limiting the flow of air into the kiln, or burning coal rather than wood, can strip oxygen from the surface of clays and glazes. This can affect the appearance of the wares being fired and, for example, some glazes containing iron fire brown in an oxidising atmosphere, but green in a reducing atmosphere. The atmosphere within a kiln can be adjusted to produce complex effects in glaze.

Kilns may be heated by burning wood, coal and gas or by electricity. When used as fuels, coal and wood can introduce smoke, soot and ash into the kiln which can affect the appearance of unprotected wares. For this reason, wares fired in wood- or coal-fired kilns are often placed in the kiln in saggars, lidded ceramic boxes, to protect them. Modern kilns powered by gas or electricity are cleaner and more easily controlled than older wood- or coal-fired kilns and often allow shorter firing times to be used. In a Western adaptation of traditional Japanese Raku ware firing, wares are removed from the kiln while hot and smothered in ashes, paper or woodchips which produces a distinctive carbonised appearance. This technique is also used in Malaysia in creating traditional labu sayung.^[23]^[24]

In Mali, a firing mound is used rather than a brick or stone kiln. Unfired pots are first brought to the place where a mound will be built, customarily by the women and girls of the village. The mound's foundation is made by placing sticks on the ground, then:

When a mound is completed and the ground around has been swept clean of residual combustible material, a senior potter lights the fire. A handful of grass is lit and the woman runs around the circumference of the mound touching the burning torch to the dried grass. Some mounds are still being constructed as others are already burning.^[25]}}

History

A great part of the history of pottery is prehistoric, part of past pre-literate cultures. Therefore, much of this history can only be found among the artifacts of archaeology. Because pottery is so durable, pottery and shards of pottery survive from millennia at archaeological sites, and are typically the most common and important type of artifact to survive. Many prehistoric cultures are named after the pottery that is the easiest way to identify their sites, and archaeologists develop the ability to recognise different types from small shards.

Before pottery becomes part of a culture, several conditions must generally be met.

Early pottery

History of pottery types

Earthenware

The earliest forms of pottery were made from clays that were fired at low temperatures in pit-fires or in open bonfires. They were hand formed and undecorated. Because the biscuit form of earthenware is porous, it has limited utility for storage of liquids. However, earthenware has a continuous history from the Neolithic period to today. It can be made from a wide variety of clays. It is also called terracotta, especially when used for sculpture. The development of ceramic glaze which makes it impermeable makes it a popular and practical form of pottery making. The addition of decoration has evolved throughout its history.

Stoneware

Stoneware is pottery that has been fired in a kiln at a high temperature, and is stronger and non-porous to liquids.^[32] The Chinese, who developed stoneware very early on, classify this together with porcelain as high-fired wares. In contrast, stoneware could only be produced in Europe from the late Middle Ages, as European kilns were less efficient, and the right sorts of clay less common. It remained a speciality of Germany until the Renaissance.^[33]

Porcelain

Porcelain is made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between {{convert|1200|and|1400|°C|°F|-2}}. The toughness, strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainly from vitrification and the formation of the mineral mullite within the body at these high temperatures.

Porcelain was first made in China; the date is somewhat controversial and depends on the definition used. It was certainly perfected by the Tang Dynasty (AD 618–906), and was being exported. Porcelain was also made in Korea and in Japan from the end of the 16th century, after suitable kaolin was located in those countries. It was not made effectively outside East Asia until the 18th century.^[34]

History by region

Beginnings of pottery

Pottery may well have been discovered independently in various places, probably by accidentally creating it at the bottom of fires on a clay soil. All the earliest vessel forms were pit fired and made by coiling, which is a simple technology to learn. The earliest-known ceramic objects are Gravettian figurines such as those discovered at Dolní Věstonice in the modern-day Czech Republic. The Venus of Dolní Věstonice is a Venus figurine, a statuette of a nude female figure dated to 29,000–25,000 BC (Gravettian industry).^[35]

Other early pottery vessels include those excavated from the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China, dated from 16,000 BC,^[39] and those found in the Amur River basin in the Russian Far East, dated from 14,000 BC.^[40]^[41]

The Odai Yamamoto I site, belonging to the Jōmon period, currently has the oldest pottery in Japan. Excavations in 1998 uncovered earthenware fragments which have been dated as early as 14,500 BC.^[42]

The term "Jōmon" means "cord-marked" in Japanese. This refers to the markings made on the vessels and figures using sticks with cords during their production. Recent research has elucidated how Jōmon pottery was used by its creators.^[43]

It appears that pottery was independently developed in Sub-Saharan Africa during the 10th millennium BC, with findings dating to at least 9,400 BC^[44] and in South America during the 10,000s BC.^[45] The Malian finds date to the same period as similar finds from East Asia – the triangle between Siberia, China and Japan – and are associated in both regions to the same climatic changes (at the end of the ice age new grassland develops, enabling hunter-gatherers to expand their habitat), met independently by both cultures with similar developments: the creation of pottery for the storage of wild cereals (pearl millet), and that of small arrowheads for hunting small game typical of grassland.^[44] Alternatively, the creation of pottery in the case of the Incipient Jōmon civilisation could be due to the intensive exploitation of freshwater and marine organisms by late glacial foragers, who started developing ceramic containers for their catch.^[43]

East Asia

In Japan, the Jōmon period has a long history of development of Jōmon Pottery which was characterized by impressions of rope on the surface of the pottery created by pressing rope into the clay before firing. Glazed Stoneware was being created as early as the 15th century BC in China. A form of Chinese porcelain became a significant Chinese export from the Tang Dynasty (AD 618–906) onwards.^[32] Korean potters produced porcelain as early as the 14th century AD.^[46] Koreans brought the art of porcelain to Japan in the 17th century AD.^[47]

In contrast to Europe, the Chinese elite used pottery extensively at table, for religious purposes, and for decoration, and the standards of fine pottery were very high. From the Song dynasty (960–1279) for several centuries elite taste favoured plain-coloured and exquisitely formed pieces; during this period true porcelain was perfected in Ding ware, although it was the only one of the Five Great Kilns of the Song period to use it. The traditional Chinese category of high-fired wares includes stoneware types such as Ru ware, Longquan celadon, and Guan ware. Painted wares such as Cizhou ware had a lower status, though they were acceptable for making pillows.

The arrival of Chinese blue and white porcelain was probably a product of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) dispersing artists and craftsmen across its large empire. Both the cobalt die used for the blue colour, and the style of painted decoration, usually based on plant shapes, were initially borrowed from the Islamic world, which the Mongols had also conquered. At the same time Jingdezhen porcelain, produced in Imperial factories, took the undisputed leading role in production, which it has retained to the present day. The new elaborately painted style was now favoured at court, and gradually more colours were added.

The secret of making such porcelain was sought in the Islamic world and later in Europe when examples were imported from the East. Many attempts were made to imitate it in Italy and France. However it was not produced outside of the Orient until 1709 in Germany.^[48]

South Asia

Pottery was in use in South Asia dating back to prehistoric times, including areas now forming Pakistan and northwest India, during the Mehrgarh Period II (5,500–4,800 BC) and Merhgarh Period III (4,800–3,500 BC), known as the ceramic Neolithic and chalcolithic. Pottery, including items known as the ed-Dur vessels, originated in regions of the Saraswati River / Indus River and have been found in a number of sites in the Indus Civilization.^[49]^[50]

Despite an extensive prehistoric record of pottery, including painted wares, little "fine" or luxury pottery was made in the subcontinent in historic times. Hinduism discourages eating off pottery, which probably largely accounts for this. Most traditional Indian pottery vessels are large pots or jars for storage, or small cups or lamps, often treated as disposable. In contrast there are long traditions of sculpted figures, often rather large, in terracotta.

Near East

The earliest history of pottery production in the Fertile Crescent can be divided into four periods, namely: the Hassuna period (7000–6500 BC), the Halaf period (6500–5500 BC), the Ubaid period (5500–4000 BC), and the Uruk period (4000–3100 BC). By about 5000 BC pottery-making was becoming widespread across the region, and spreading out from it to neighbouring areas.

Pottery making began in the 7th millennium BC. The earliest forms, which were found at the Hassuna site, were hand formed from slabs, undecorated, unglazed low-fired pots made from reddish-brown clays.^[31] Within the next millennium, wares were decorated with elaborate painted designs and natural forms, incising and burnished.

The invention of the potter's wheel in Mesopotamia sometime between 6000 and 4000 BC (Ubaid period) revolutionized pottery production. Newer kiln designs could fire wares to {{convert|1050|C|F}} to {{Convert|1200|C|F}} which enabled new possibilities and new preparation of clays. Production was now carried out by small groups of potters for small cities, rather than individuals making wares for a family. The shapes and range of uses for ceramics and pottery expanded beyond simple vessels to store and carry to specialized cooking utensils, pot stands and rat traps.^[51] As the region developed, new organizations and political forms, pottery became more elaborate and varied. Some wares were made using moulds, allowing for increased production for the needs of the growing populations. Glazing was commonly used and pottery was more decorated.^[52]

In the Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia, Halafian pottery achieved a level of technical competence and sophistication, not seen until the later developments of Greek pottery with Corinthian and Attic ware.

Europe

The early inhabitants of Europe developed pottery in the Linear Pottery culture at about the same time as in the Near East, circa 5500–4500 BC. In the ancient Western Mediterranean elaborately painted earthenware reached very high levels of artistic achievement in the Greek world; there are large numbers of survivals from tombs. Minoan pottery was characterized by complex painted decoration with natural themes.^[53] The classical Greek culture began to emerge around 1000 BC featuring a variety of well crafted pottery which now included the human form as a decorating motif. The pottery wheel was now in regular use. Although glazing was known to these potters, it was not widely used. Instead, a more porous clay slip was used for decoration. A wide range of shapes for different uses developed early and remained essentially unchanged during Greek history.^[54]

Fine Etruscan pottery was heavily influenced by Greek pottery and often imported Greek potters and painters. Ancient Roman pottery made much less use of painting, but used moulded decoration, allowing industrialized production on a huge scale. Much of the so-called red Samian ware of the Early Roman Empire was

in fact produced in modern Germany and France, where entrepreneurs established large potteries.

Pottery was hardly seen on the tables of elites from Hellenistic times until the Renaissance, and most medieval wares were coarse and utilitarian, as the elites ate off metal vessels. Imports from Asia revived interest in fine pottery, which European manufacturers eventually learned to make, and from the 18th century European porcelain and other wares from a great number of producers became extremely popular.

Islamic pottery

Early Islamic pottery followed the forms of the regions which the Muslims conquered. Eventually, however, there was cross-fertilization between the regions. This was most notable in the Chinese influences on Islamic pottery. Trade between China and Islam took place via the system of trading posts over the lengthy Silk Road. Islamic nations imported stoneware and later porcelain from China. China imported the minerals for Cobalt blue from the Islamic ruled Persia to decorate their blue and white porcelain, which they then exported to the Islamic world.

Likewise, Islamic art contributed to a lasting pottery form identified as Hispano-Moresque in Andalucia (Islamic Spain). Unique Islamic forms were also developed, including fritware, lusterware and specialized glazes like tin-glazing, which led to the development of the popular maiolica.^[55]

One major emphasis in ceramic development in the Muslim world was the use of tile and decorative tilework.

Americas

Most evidence points to an independent development of pottery in the Native American cultures, starting with their Archaic Era (3500–2000 BC), and into their Formative period (2000 BC – AD 200). These cultures did not develop the stoneware, porcelain or glazes found in the Old World. Maya ceramics include finely painted vessels, usually beakers, with elaborate scenes with several figures and texts. Several cultures, beginning with the Olmec, made terracotta sculpture, and sculptural pieces of humans or animals that are also vessels are produced in many places, with Moche portrait vessels among the finest.

Africa

In 2007, Swiss archaeologists discovered pieces of the oldest pottery in Africa at Ounjougou in Central Mali, dating back to at least 9,500 BC.^[44] The relationship of the introduction of pot-making in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa with the spread of Bantu languages has been long recognized, although the details remain controversial and awaiting further research, and no consensus has been reached.^[56]

Ancient Egyptian pottery begins after 5,000 BC, having spread from the Levant. There were many distinct phases of development in pottery, with very sophisticated wares being produced by the Naqada III period, c. 3,200 to 3,000 BC. During the early Mediterranean civilizations of the fertile crescent, Egypt developed a unique non-clay-based ceramic which has come to be called Egyptian faience.^[57] During the Umayyad Caliphate of Islam, Egypt was a link between early center of Islam in the Near East and Iberia which led to the impressive style of pottery.

It is, however, still valuable to look into pottery as an archaeological record of potential interaction between peoples, especially in areas where little or no written history exists. Because Africa is primarily heavy in oral traditions, and thus lacks a large body of written historical sources, pottery has a valuable archaeological role. When pottery is placed within the context of linguistic and migratory patterns, it becomes an even more prevalent category of social artifact.^[56] As proposed by Olivier P. Gosselain, it is possible to understand ranges of cross-cultural interaction by looking closely at the chaîne opératoire of ceramic production.^[58]

The methodologies used to produce pottery in early Sub-Saharan Africa are divisible into three categories: techniques visible to the eye (decoration, firing and post-firing techniques), techniques related to the materials (selection or processing of clay, etc.), and techniques of molding or fashioning the clay.^[58] We can use these three categories to consider the implications of the reoccurrence of a particular sort of pottery in different areas. Generally, the techniques that are easily visible (the first category of those mentioned above) are thus readily imitated, and may indicate a more distant connection between groups, such as trade in the same market or even relatively close proximity in settlements.^[58] Techniques that require more studied replication (i.e., the selection of clay and the fashioning of clay) may indicate a closer connection between peoples, as these methods are usually only transmissible between potters and those otherwise directly involved in production.^[58] Such a relationship requires the ability of the involved parties to communicate effectively, implying pre-existing norms of contact or a shared language between the two. Thus, the patterns of technical diffusion in pot-making that are visible via archaeological findings also reveal patterns in societal interaction.

Oceania

Pottery has been found in archaeological sites across the islands of Oceania. It is attributed to an ancient archaeological culture called the Lapita. Another form of pottery called Plainware is found throughout sites of Oceania. The relationship between Lapita pottery and Plainware is not altogether clear.

The Indigenous Australians never developed pottery.^[59] After Europeans came to Australia and settled, they found deposits of clay which were analysed by English potters as excellent for making pottery. Less than 20 years later, Europeans came to Australia and began creating pottery. Since then, ceramic manufacturing, mass-produced pottery and studio pottery have flourished in Australia.^[60]

Archaeology

The study of pottery can help to provide an insight into past cultures. Pottery is durable, and fragments, at least, often survive long after artefacts made from less-durable materials have decayed past recognition. Combined with other evidence, the study of pottery artefacts is helpful in the development of theories on the organisation, economic condition and the cultural development of the societies that produced or acquired pottery. The study of pottery may also allow inferences to be drawn about a culture's daily life, religion, social relationships, attitudes towards neighbours, attitudes to their own world and even the way the culture understood the universe.

Chronologies based on pottery are often essential for dating non-literate cultures and are often of help in the dating of historic cultures as well. Trace-element analysis, mostly by neutron activation, allows the sources of clay to be accurately identified and the thermoluminescence test can be used to provide an estimate of the date of last firing. Examining fired pottery shards from prehistory, scientists learned that during high-temperature firing, iron materials in clay record the exact state of Earth's magnetic field at that exact moment.

Environmental issues in production

Although many of the environmental effects of pottery production have existed for millennia, some of these have been amplified with modern technology and scales of production. The principal factors for consideration fall into two categories: (a) effects on workers, and (b) effects on the general environment. Within the effects on workers, chief impacts are indoor air quality, sound levels and possible over-illumination. Regarding the general environment, factors of interest are fuel consumption, off-site water pollution, air pollution and disposal of hazardous materials.

Historically, "plumbism" (lead poisoning) was a significant health concern to those glazing pottery. This was recognised at least as early as the nineteenth century, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to limit pottery workers' exposure was introduced in 1899.^[61] While the risk to those working in ceramics is now much reduced, it can still not be ignored. With respect to indoor air quality, workers can be exposed to fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide and certain heavy metals. The greatest health risk is the potential to develop silicosis from the long-term exposure to crystalline silica. Proper ventilation can reduce the risks, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to govern ventilation was introduced in 1899.^[61] Another, more recent study at Laney College, Oakland, California suggests that all these factors can be controlled in a well-designed workshop environment.^[62]

Other usages

The English city of Stoke-on-Trent is widely known as "The Potteries" because of the large number of pottery factories or, colloquially, "Pot Banks." It was one of the first industrial cities of the modern era where, as early as 1785, two hundred pottery manufacturers employed 20,000 workers.^[63] For the same reason, the largest football club in the city is known as "The Potters."^[64]

See also

Notes

1. ^'Standard Terminology Of Ceramic Whitewares And Related Products.' ASTM C 242–01 (2007.) ASTM International.
2. ^{{cite news |first = Jared |last = Diamond |url = http://discovermagazine.com/1998/jun/japaneseroots1455/ |title = Japanese Roots |work = Discover |publisher = Discover Media LLC |date = June 1998 |accessdate = 2010-07-10 |deadurl = no |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100311073919/http://discovermagazine.com/1998/jun/japaneseroots1455 |archivedate = 2010-03-11 |df =}}
3. ^"The Fast Firing Of Biscuit Earthenware Hollow-Ware In a Single-Layer Tunnel Kiln." Salt D.L. Holmes W.H. RP737. Ceram Research.
4. ^"New And Latest Biscuit Firing Technology". Porzellanfabriken Christian Seltmann GmbH. Ceram.Forum Int./Ber.DKG 87, No. 1/2, pp. E33–E34, E36. 2010
5. ^"Whitewares: Production, Testing And Quality Control." W.Ryan & C.Radford. Pergamon Press. 1987
6. ^Ruth M. Home, 'Ceramics for the Potter', Chas. A. Bennett Co., 1952
7. ^Home, 1952, p. 16
8. ^Dennis Krueger, Why On Earth Do They Call It Throwing?, in Ceramics Today {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203065817/http://www.ceramicstoday.com/articles/why_throwing.htm |date=2007-02-03 }}
9. ^"Whitewares: Production, Testing And Quality Control." W.Ryan & C.Radford. Pergamon Press. 1987
10. ^"Novel Approach To Injection Moulding." M.Y.Anwar, P.F. Messer, H.A. Davies, B. Ellis. Ceramic Technology International 1996. Sterling Publications Ltd., London, 1995. pp. 95–96, 98.
11. ^¹"Injection Moulding Of Porcelain Pieces." A. Odriozola, M.Gutierrez, U.Haupt, A.Centeno. Bol. Soc. Esp. Ceram. Vidrio 35, No. 2, 1996. pp. 103–07
12. ^"Injection Moulding Of Cups With Handles." U.Haupt. International Ceramics. No. 2, 1998, pp. 48–51.
13. ^"Injection Moulding Technology In Tableware Production." Ceramic World Review. 13, No. 54, 2003. pp. 94, 96–97.
14. ^An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery. Paul Rado. Pergamon Press. 1969
15. ^'Sanitaryware Technology'. Domenico Fortuna. Gruppo Editoriale Faenza Editrice S.p.A. 2000.
16. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.dorst.de/dorst_seite/Infolines_PDF/Infoline%20DGM/DGM-E.pdf |title=DGM-E.pdf |date= |accessdate=2010-09-04 }}{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
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18. ^Dictionary Of Ceramics. Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994.
19. ^"Clay Sewer Pipe Manufacture. Part II – The Effect Of Variable Alumina, Silica And Iron Oxide In Clays On Some Properties Of Salt Glazes." H.G. Schurecht. The Journal of the American Ceramic Society. Volume 6. Issue 6, pp. 717–29.
20. ^"Dictionary Of Ceramics." Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994.
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22. ^"Glaze From Wood Ashes And Their Colour Characteristics." Y-S. Han, B-H. Lee. Korean Ceramic Society 41. No. 2. 2004.
23. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.brothers-handmade.com/potteryhistory.html |title=History of Pottery |publisher=Brothers-handmade.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-04 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6FwnJazTt?url=http://www.brothers-handmade.com/potteryhistory.html |archivedate=2013-04-17 |df= }}
24. ^{{cite web |author=Malaxi Teams |url=http://www.malaxi.com/perak/labu_sayong.html |title=Labu Sayong, Perak |publisher=Malaxi.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-04 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6FwnKFvUC?url=http://www.malaxi.com/perak/labu_sayong.html |archivedate=2013-04-17 |df= }}
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26. ^William K. Barnett and John W. Hoopes, The Emergence of Pottery: Technology and Innovation in Ancient Society, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995, p. 19
27. ^Metropolitan Museum of Art {{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jomo/hd_jomo.htm |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-09-15 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906082446/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jomo/hd_jomo.htm |archivedate=2011-09-06 |df= }}
28. ^Glenn C. Nelson, Ceramics: A Potter's Handbook,1966, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., p. 251
29. ^Cooper (2010)
30. ^Nelson (1966), p. 251
31. ^¹Cooper (2010), p. 16
32. ^¹Cooper (2010), p. 54
33. ^Crabtree, Pamela, ed., Medieval Archaeology, Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages, 2013, Routledge, {{ISBN|1-135-58298-X}}, 9781135582982, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mhqV-Of0DqgC&pg=PA326 google books]
34. ^Cooper (2010), pp. 72–79, 160–79
35. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi359.htm |title=No. 359: The Dolni Vestonice Ceramics |publisher=Uh.edu |date=1989-11-24 |accessdate=2010-09-04 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100109213627/http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi359.htm |archivedate=2010-01-09 |df= }}
36. ^[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/science/oldest-known-pottery-found-in-china.html "Remnants of an Ancient Kitchen Are Found in China"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315202344/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/03/science/oldest-known-pottery-found-in-china.html |date=2017-03-15 }}. The New York Times.
37. ^{{cite journal|title=Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China|journal=Science|date=June 29, 2012|volume=336|issue=6089|pages=1696–700|doi=10.1126/science.1218643|pmid=22745428|df=|last1=Wu|first1=X.|last2=Zhang|first2=C.|last3=Goldberg|first3=P.|last4=Cohen|first4=D.|last5=Pan|first5=Y.|last6=Arpin|first6=T.|last7=Bar-Yosef|first7=O.}}
38. ^[https://www.bostonglobe.com/news/science/2012/06/28/harvard-and-boston-university-researchers-find-evidence-year-old-pottery/eTrcMITspR9gPoxAcxQUZL/story.html "Harvard, BU researchers find evidence of 20,000-year-old pottery"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728174501/https://www.bostonglobe.com/news/science/2012/06/28/harvard-and-boston-university-researchers-find-evidence-year-old-pottery/eTrcMITspR9gPoxAcxQUZL/story.html |date=2017-07-28 }}. The Boston Globe.
39. ^¹"Chinese pottery may be earliest discovered." {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006170740/http://www.cleveland.com/world/index.ssf/2009/06/chinese_pottery_may_be_earlies.html |date=2012-10-06 }} Associated Press. 2009-06-01.
40. ^¹²'AMS 14C Age Of The Earliest Pottery From The Russian Far East; 1996–2002.' Derevianko A.P., Kuzmin Y.V., Burr G.S., Jull A.J.T., Kim J.C. Nuclear Instruments And Methods In Physics Research. B223–224 (2004) 735–39.
41. ^'Radiocarbon Dating Of Charcoal And Bone Collagen Associated With Early Pottery At Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China.' Boaretto E., Wu X., Yuan J., Bar-Yosef O., Chu V., Pan Y., Liu K., Cohen D., Jiao T., Li S., Gu H., Goldberg P., Weiner S. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. June 2009. 16;106(24): 9595–600.
42. ^{{cite news |first=Simon |last=Kainer |url=http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa1/CWA_issue_1.pdf |title=The Oldest Pottery in the World |work=Current World Archaeology |publisher=Robert Selkirk |pages=44–49 |date=September 2003 |accessdate=2016-09-27 |format=PDF |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060423001511/http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa1/CWA_issue_1.pdf |archivedate=2006-04-23 |df=}}
43. ^¹{{cite journal |title=Earliest evidence for the use of pottery |author=O.E. Craig, H. Saul, A. Lucquin, Y. Nishida, K. Taché, L. Clarke, A. Thompson, D.T. Altoft, J. Uchiyama, M. Ajimoto, K. Gibbs, S. Isaksson, C.P. Heron P. Jordan |journal=Nature |volume=496 |date=18 April 2013 |issue=496 |doi=10.1038/nature12109 |pmid=23575637 |pages=351–54 |isbn= |df= |hdl=10454/5947 |arxiv=1510.02343 }}
44. ^¹²Simon Bradley, A Swiss-led team of archaeologists has discovered pieces of the oldest African pottery in central Mali, dating back to at least 9,400BC {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306002155/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/Home/Archive/Swiss_archaeologist_digs_up_West_Africas_past.html?cid=5675736 |date=2012-03-06 }}, SWI swissinfo.ch – the international service of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SBC), 18 January 2007
45. ^Barnett & Hoopes 1995:211
46. ^Cooper (2010), p. 75
47. ^Cooper (2010), p. 79
48. ^Cooper (2010), pp. 160–62
49. ^Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (vol. 85, 1942). {{ISBN|1-4223-7221-9}}
50. ^Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates: Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Archaeology of the U.A.E. By Daniel T. Potts, Hasan Al Naboodah, Peter Hellyer. Contributor Daniel T. Potts, Hasan Al Naboodah, Peter Hellyer. Published 2003. Trident Press Ltd. {{ISBN|1-900724-88-X}}
51. ^Cooper (2010), pp. 19–20
52. ^Cooper (2010), pp. 20–24
53. ^Cooper (2010), pp. 36–37
54. ^Cooper (2010), p. 42
55. ^Nelson (1966), pp. 23–26
56. ^¹See Koen Bostoen, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4501038 "Pots, Words and the Bantu Problem: On Lexical Reconstruction and Early African History", Journal of African History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819115353/http://www.jstor.org/stable/4501038 |date=2016-08-19 }}, 48 (2007), pp. 173–99 for a recent discussion of the issues, and links to further literature.
57. ^The non-clay ceramic called Egyptian faience should not be confused with faience, which is a type of glaze.
58. ^¹²³See Olivier P. Gosselain, [Gosselain, Olivier P. "Materializing Identities: An African Perspective." The Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 7.3 (2000): 187–217.] for further discussion and sources.
59. ^Aboriginal Culture: Introduction {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316213213/http://www.aboriginalculture.com.au/introduction.shtml |date=2015-03-16 }}
60. ^History of Australian Pottery {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317142740/http://home.exetel.com.au/pottery/pottery/pottery.htm |date=2012-03-17 }}
61. ^¹Health Risks In A Victorian Pottery {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707001548/http://www.stokemuseums.org.uk/collections/browse_collections/ceramics/research_resources/general/health_risks_pottery |date=2012-07-07 }}
62. ^Indoor air quality evaluation for the Butler Building Ceramics Laboratory, Laney College, Oakland, California, Earth Metrics Incorporated, Alameda County Schools Insurance Association, December, 1989
63. ^Patterns of Labour - Work and Social Change in the Pottery Industry. Richard Whipp. Routlidge 1990
64. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.stokecityfc.com/page/HistoryIndex/0,,10310,00.html |title=Stokecityfc.com |publisher=Stokecityfc.com |date=2010-05-13 |accessdate=2010-09-04 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825031654/http://www.stokecityfc.com/page/HistoryIndex/0,,10310,00.html |archivedate=2010-08-25 |df= }}

Production stages

Clay bodies and mineral contents

Decorating and glazing

Decoration

Glaze

Firing

History

Early pottery

History of pottery types

Earthenware

Stoneware

Porcelain

History by region

Beginnings of pottery

East Asia

South Asia

Near East

Europe

Islamic pottery

Americas

Africa

Oceania

Archaeology

Environmental issues in production

Other usages

See also

Notes

Notes

References

Further reading

External links