| 词条 | Pounamu | |||||||||||
| 释义 |
Pounamu refers to several types of hard, durable and highly valued nephrite jade, bowenite, or serpentinite stone found in southern New Zealand. Pounamu is the Māori name. These rocks are also generically known as "greenstone" in New Zealand English. There are two systems for classifying pounamu. Geologically, the rock falls into the three categories named above, but Māori classify pounamu by appearance.[2] The main classifications are kawakawa, kahurangi, īnanga, and tangiwai. The first three are nephrite jade, while tangiwai is a form of bowenite.[3]
In modern usage pounamu almost always refers to nephrite jade. Pounamu is generally found in rivers in specific parts of the South Island as nondescript boulders and stones. These are difficult to identify as pounamu without cutting them open. Significance to Māori{{lang|mi|Pounamu}} plays a very important role in Māori culture. It is considered a {{lang|mi|taonga}} (treasure) and therefore protected under the Treaty of Waitangi. {{lang|mi|Pounamu taonga}} increase in {{lang|mi|mana}} (prestige) as they pass from one generation to another. The most prized {{lang|mi|taonga}} are those with known histories going back many generations. These are believed to have their own {{lang|mi|mana}} and were often given as gifts to seal important agreements.{{lang|mi|Pounamu taonga}} include tools such as {{lang|mi|toki}} (adzes), {{lang|mi|whao}} (chisels), {{lang|mi|whao whakakōka}} (gouges), {{lang|mi|ripi pounamu}} (knives), scrapers, awls, hammer stones, and drill points. Hunting tools include {{lang|mi|matau}} (fishing hooks) and lures, spear points, and {{lang|mi|kākā poria}} (leg rings for fastening captive birds); weapons such as {{lang|mi|mere}} (short handled clubs); and ornaments such as pendants ({{lang|mi|hei-tiki}}, {{lang|mi|hei matau}} and {{lang|mi|pekapeka}}), ear pendants ({{lang|mi|kuru}} and {{lang|mi|kapeu}}), and cloak pins. [8][9]Functional {{lang|mi|pounamu}} tools were widely worn for both practical and ornamental reasons, and continued to be worn as purely ornamental pendants ({{lang|mi|hei kakī}}) even after they were no longer used as tools.[10] {{lang|mi|Pounamu}} is found only in the South Island of New Zealand, known in Māori as {{lang|mi|Te Wai Pounamu}} ("The [land of] Greenstone Water") or {{lang|mi|Te Wahi Pounamu}} ("The Place of Greenstone").[11] In 1997 the Crown handed back the ownership of all naturally occurring {{lang|mi|pounamu}} to the South Island {{lang|mi|iwi}} {{lang|mi|Ngāi Tahu|italic=no}},[12][13] as part of the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement.Geological formation and locationPounamu is found on the West Coast, Fiordland and western Southland.[14][15] It is typically recovered from rivers and beaches where it has been transported to after being eroded from the mountains. However, pounamu has also been quarried by Māori from the mountains, even above the snow line. The group of rocks where pounamu comes from are called ophiolites. Ophiolites are slices of the deep ocean crust and part of the mantle. When these deep mantle rocks (serpentinite) and crustal rock (mafic igneous rocks) are heated up (metamorphosed) together, pounamu can be formed at their contact.[16] Pounamu has been formed in New Zealand in three main locations. The Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt has been metamorphosed in western Southland and pounamu from this belt is found along the eastern and northern edge of Fiordland.[17] The Anita Bay Dunite near Milford Sound is a small but highly prized source of pounamu.[18] In the Southern Alps, the Pounamu Ultramafic Belt in the Haast Schist occurs as isolated pods which are eroded and found on West Coast rivers and beaches.[19] Modern useJewellery and other decorative items made from gold and pounamu were particularly fashionable in New Zealand in the Victorian and Edwardian years in the late 19th and early 20th century.[20][21] It continues to be popular among New Zealanders and is often presented as gifts to visitors and to New Zealanders moving overseas. In 2009 David Anthony Saxton and his son Morgan David Saxton were sentenced to two and a half years imprisonment for stealing greenstone, with a helicopter, from the southern West Coast.[22] Viggo Mortensen, Aragorn in The Lord of the Rings, took to wearing a hei matau around his neck. Michael Hurst of the television programme Hercules was given a large and heavy pounamu pendant necklace which he wore on the programme. During a particularly energetic action scene the pendant bumped his teeth. The producers felt the ornament suited the nature of the programme yet considered it a safety risk, and had it replaced with a latex replica. In the 2016 animated movie Moana, Te Fiti's heart was a pounamu stone. GallerySee also
References1. ^{{cite web |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=44059 |title=The Greenstone Waters, New Zealand |date=22 May 2010 |website=NASA |accessdate=28 November 2017}} 2. ^{{Cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Pounamu – An iconic stone | work = Kura Pounamu Treasured stone of Aotearoa New Zealand | publisher = Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa | date = | url = http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/exhibitions/pounamu/segment.aspx?irn=1960 | format = | doi = | accessdate = 21 November 2010}} 3. ^{{Cite web | last = Keane | first = Basil | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Pounamu – jade or greenstone – Pounamu – several names | work = Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand | publisher = Ministry for Culture & Heritage | date = 2 March 2009 | url = http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/MineralResources/PounamuJadeOrGreenstone/1/en | format = | doi = | accessdate = 21 November 2010}} 4. ^{{Cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Inanga pounamu | work = Kura Pounamu Treasured stone of Aotearoa New Zealand | publisher = Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa | date = | url = https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/topic/1962 | format = | doi = | accessdate = 25 March 2019}} 5. ^{{Cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Kahurangi pounamu | work = Kura Pounamu Treasured stone of Aotearoa New Zealand | publisher = Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa | date = | url = https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/topic/1963 | format = | doi = | accessdate = 25 March 2019}} 6. ^{{Cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Kawakawa pounamu | work = Kura Pounamu Treasured stone of Aotearoa New Zealand | publisher = Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa | date = | url = https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/topic/1964 | format = | doi = | accessdate = 25 March 2019}} 7. ^{{Cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Tangiwai pounamu | work = Kura Pounamu Treasured stone of Aotearoa New Zealand | publisher = Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa | date = | url = https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/topic/1965 | format = | doi = | accessdate = 25 March 2019}} 8. ^{{Cite web |title=Pounamu taonga |publisher=Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa |url=https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/search/%22taonga%20maori%22+pounamu/results |accessdate=25 March 2019}} 9. ^{{Cite web |last=Keane |first=Basil |title=Pounamu – jade or greenstone – Implements and adornment |work=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture & Heritage |date=2 March 2009 |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/pounamu-jade-or-greenstone/4 |accessdate=21 November 2010}} 10. ^{{cite journal |url=http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/Publication/3154 |title=Porotaka hei matau — a traditional Māori tool? |author=Chris D. Paulin |journal=Tuhinga |volume=20 |pages=15–21 |publisher=Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa }} 11. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/national/224273/maori-names-for-north-and-south-islands-approved |title=Māori names for North and South Islands approved |website=RNZ National |date=10 October 2013 |accessdate=28 November 2017}} 12. ^"Pounamu Management Plan", Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu 13. ^"Ngāi Tahu and pounamu", Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand 14. ^{{cite book |last=Best |first= Elsdon|date=1912 |title=The Stone Implements of the Maori |url= |location= |publisher=Government Printer |page=410 |isbn= |author-link= }} 15. ^{{cite book |last=Coleman |first= Robert Griffin |date=1966 |title=New Zealand serpentinites and associated metasomatic rocks |url= |location= |publisher=Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, N.Z. Geological Survey |page=101 |isbn= |author-link= }} 16. ^{{cite journal|last1=Adams|first1=C.J.|last2=Beck|first2=R.J.|last3=Campbell|first3=H.J.|title=Characterisation and origin of New Zealand nephrite jade using its strontium isotopic signature|journal=Lithos|volume=97|issue=3-4|year=2007|pages=307–322|issn=00244937|doi=10.1016/j.lithos.2007.01.001}} 17. ^{{cite journal|last1=Coombs|first1=D. S.|last2=Landis|first2=C. A.|last3=Norris|first3=R. J.|last4=Sinton|first4=J. M.|last5=Borns|first5=D. J.|last6=Craw|first6=D.|title=The Dun Mountain ophiolite belt, New Zealand, its tectonic setting, constitution, and origin, with special reference to the southern portion|journal=American Journal of Science|volume=276|issue=5|year=1976|pages=561–603|issn=0002-9599|doi=10.2475/ajs.276.5.561}} 18. ^{{cite journal|last1=Coutts|first1=P. J. F.|title=Greenstone: the prehistoric exploitation of bowenite from Anita Bay, Milford Sound|journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society|volume=80|issue=1|year=1971|pages=42-73|issn=}} 19. ^{{cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=A.F.|last2=Reay|first2=A.|title=Lithology, field relationships, and structure of the Pounamu Ultramafics from the Whitcombe and Hokitika Rivers, Westland, New Zealand|journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics|volume=26|issue=4|year=1983|pages=359–379|issn=0028-8306|doi=10.1080/00288306.1983.10422254}} 20. ^{{Cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Pounamu – a special gift | work = Kura Pounamu Treasured stone of Aotearoa New Zealand | publisher = Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa | date = | url = http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/exhibitions/pounamu/ArtWorks.aspx?pirn=1993 | format = | doi = | accessdate = 21 November 2010}} 21. ^{{Cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Pounamu items from the history collection | work = Collections Online | publisher = Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa | date = | url = http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/search.aspx?advanced=colCollectionType%3a%22History%22+colMaterials%3a%22pounamu%22+colCollectionGroup%3aCH&imagesonly=on | format = | doi = | accessdate = 21 November 2010}} 22. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/271748/Greenstone-thieves-sent-to-prison |title=Greenstone thieves sent to prison |last= |first= |date= |website=www.stuff.co.nz |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}} 23. ^http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/Topic/1988 24. ^http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/Topic/1989 External links{{Commons category|New Zealand greenstone}}
7 : Gemstones|Geology of New Zealand|Hardstone carving|Māori culture|Māori words and phrases|Petrology|Rocks |
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