“Diver training”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Diver training is the set of processes through which a person learns the necessary and desirable skills to safely dive underwater within the scope of the training standard relevant to the specific training programme. Most diver training follows procedures and schedules laid down in the associated training standard, in a formal training programme, and includes relevant foundational knowledge of the underlying theory, including some basic physics, physiology and environmental information, practical skills training in the selection and safe use of the associated equipment in the specified underwater environment, and assessment of the required skills and knowledge deemed necessary by the certification agency to allow the newly certified diver to dive within the specified range of conditions at an acceptable level of risk. Recognition of prior learning is allowed in some training standards.

Diver training is closely associated with diver certification or registration, the process of application for and issue of formal recognition of competence by a certification agency or registration authority.

Work skills specific to the underwater environment may be included in diver trailing programmes, but are also often provided independently, either as job training for a specific operation, or as generic training by specialists in the fields.

Prerequisites

The entry requirements for diver training depend on the specific training involved, but generally include medical fitness to dive.

Fitness to dive, (also medical fitness to dive), is the medical and physical suitability of a diver to function safely in the underwater environment using underwater diving equipment and procedures. Depending on the circumstances it may be established by a signed statement by the diver that he or she does not suffer from any of the listed disqualifying conditions and is able to manage the ordinary physical requirements of diving, to a detailed medical examination by a physician registered as a medical examiner of divers following a procedural checklist, and a legal document of fitness to dive issued by the medical examiner.

The most important medical is the one before starting diving, as the diver can be screened to prevent exposure when a dangerous condition exists. Other important medicals are after some significant illness where medical intervention is needed. This has to be done by a doctor who is competent in diving medicine, and can not be done by prescriptive rules.^[1]

Psychological factors can affect fitness to dive, particularly where they affect response to emergencies, or risk taking behaviour. The use of medical and recreational drugs, can also influence fitness to dive, both for physiological and behavioural reasons. In some cases prescription drug use may have a net positive effect, when effectively treating an underlying condition, but frequently the side effects of effective medication may have undesirable influences on the fitness of diver, and most cases of recreational drug use result in an impaired fitness to dive, and a significantly increased risk of sub-optimal response to emergencies.

Formal educational prerequisites are variable. Diving skills are largely physical, but for professional diving a measure of literacy and numeracy is necessary to allow a reasonable chance of success with the theoretical knowledge requirements, and for effective on-site communication within the dive team. The international lingua franca of offshore diving operations is English.

Format

Diver training is a form of competency-based adult education that generally occurs partly in a formal training environment for the components specified by training standards and for which cerification is issued. There are also non-formal and informal aspects where certified divers extend their competence and experience by practicing the basic skills and learning other complementary skills in the field. Professional diver training is vocational education.

Diving theory

Diving theory is the basic knowledge of the physical and physiological effects of the underwater environment on the diver.

Diving physics are the aspects of physics which directly affect the underwater diver and which explain the effects that divers and their equipment are subject to underwater which differ from the normal human experience out of water. These effects are mostly consequences of immersion in water, the hydrostatic pressure of depth and the effects of the pressure on breathing gases. An understanding of the physics is useful when considering the physiological effects of diving and the hazards and risks of diving.

Immersion affects fluid balance, circulation and work of breathing.^[4]^[5] Exposure to cold water can result in the harmful cold shock response,^[6]^[7] the helpful diving reflex and excessive loss of body heat.^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] Breath-hold duration is limited by oxygen reserves, and the risk of hypoxic blackout, which has a high associated risk of drowning.^[12]^[13]^[14]

Large or sudden changes in ambient pressure have the potential for injury known as barotrauma.^[3]^[16] Breathing under pressure involves several effects. Metabolically inactive gases are absorbed by the tissues and may have narcotic or other undesirable effects, and must be released slowly to avoid the formation of bubbles during decompression. Metabolically active gases have a greater effect in proportion to their concentration, which is proportional to their partial pressure, which for contaminants is increased in proportion to absolute ambient pressure.^[3]

Work of breathing is increased by increased density and viscosity of the breathing gas, artifacts of the breathing apparatus, and hydrostatic pressure variations due to posture in the water. The underwater environment also affects sensory input, which can impact on safety and the ability to function effectively at depth.^[4]

Decompression modeling attempts to explain and predict the mechanism of gas elimination and bubble formation within the organism during and after changes in ambient pressure,^[25] and provides mathematical models which attempt to predict acceptably low risk and reasonably practicable procedures for decompression in the field.^[26] Both deterministic and probabilistic models have been used, and are still in use.

Diving medicine, also called undersea and hyperbaric medicine (UHB), is the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of conditions caused by humans entering the underwater environment. It includes the effects on the body of pressure on gases, the diagnosis and treatment of conditions caused by marine hazards and how a diver's fitness to dive affects the diver's safety.

Hyperbaric medicine is a related field associated with diving, since recompression in a hyperbaric chamber is used as a treatment for two of the most significant diving-related illnesses, decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism.

Diving medicine deals with medical research on issues of diving, the prevention of diving disorders, treatment of diving accidents and diving fitness. The field includes the effect of breathing gases and their contaminants under high pressure on the human body and the relationship between the state of physical and psychological health of the diver and safety.

In diving accidents it is common for multiple disorders to occur together and interact with each other, both causatively and as complications.

Diving medicine is a branch of occupational medicine and sports medicine, and an important part of diver education.

Teaching of diving theory is usually provided as classroom lecture sessions with formative assessment tasks and exercises and a written examination for final assessment. Blended learning is used by some agencies and schools to ensure a more consistent standard.

Other theory based knowledge

Professional divers are required to be familiar with the law regulating their occupation, and any national or international codes of practice that apply in the region where they will practice. National legislation will commonly be included in the curriculum for entry level professional diving, and may be recognised as prior learning for further diver training. The level of knowledge required of a diving supervisor is considerably higher, and is usually part of supervisor training and assessment.^[27]

Occupational heath and safety are important aspects of professional diving. The diver is expected to understand the hazards, risks and potential consequences of diving at work and using the equipment provided in the environment of the project, and though risk assessment and team safety on the job are primarily the responsibility of the supervisor and the employer, the diver is also responsible as a member of the team and is expected to have sufficient knowledge of the processes for informed consent.^[28]

Dive planning

Dive planning is the practical application of theoretical knowledge and understanding. It is the process of planning an underwater diving operation. The purpose of dive planning is to increase the probability that a dive will be completed safely and the goals achieved.^[29] Some form of planning is done for most underwater dives, but the complexity and detail considered may vary enormously.^[30] In most professional diving, dive planning is mainly the responsibility of the supervisor, but the diver is expected to understand the process sufficiently to know when it has been done correctly. In recreational diving, unless under training, the diver is generally considered equally responsible for the planning of any dive they participate in, along with the other involved divers, so dive planning at the level of certification is an important aspect of recreational diver training.

The planning of a diving operation may be simple or complex. In some cases the processes may have to be repeated several times before a satisfactory plan is achieved, and even then the plan may have to be modified on site to suit changed circumstances. The final product of the planning process may be formally documented or, in the case of recreational divers, an agreement on how the dive will be conducted. A diving project may consist of a number of related diving operations.^[35]

For scuba dives, selection of the breathing gases and calculation of the required quantities is one of the most complex parts of dive planning, and is done in parallel with planning of the dive profile and decompression plan.

The general aspects of dive planning include the following, but not all of these apply to every dive, and in many cases there is no choice available to the diver, who must work within the constraints of what is available and appropriate to their level of competence. Planning of a complex dive may be an iterative process, and the order of steps may vary.^[35]^[38]^[39]^[28]

Teaching of dive planning typically omits any aspects not relevant to the certification level, and to some extent the certification will be defined by the competence requirements for dive planning. Assessment of dive planning competence is commonly a combination of written exams on the details, and direct observation of performance of dive planning tasks.

Diving skills

Diving skills can be grouped by skills relating to the mode of diving – freediving, scuba, surface supplied or saturation diving – and whether the skill is a standard skill used in everyday diving, an emergency skill to keep oneself alive when something goes wrong, or a rescue skill to be used in the attempt to assist another diver in difficulty.

Some of the skills are generally accepted by recreational diver certification agencies^[42] as necessary for any scuba diver to be considered competent to dive without direct supervision, and others are more advanced, though some diver certification and accreditation organizations may consider some of these to also be essential for minimum acceptable entry level competence.^[43] Divers are instructed and assessed on these skills during basic and advanced training, and are expected to remain competent at their level of certification, either by practice or refresher courses.

The skills include selection, functional testing, preparation and transport of scuba equipment, dive planning, preparation for a dive, kitting up for the dive, water entry, descent, breathing underwater, monitoring the dive profile (depth, time and decompression status), personal breathing gas management, situational awareness, communicating with the dive team, buoyancy and trim control, mobility in the water, ascent, emergency and rescue procedures, exit from the water, unkitting after the dive, cleaning and preparation of equipment for storage and recording the dive, within the scope of the diver's certification.^[42]^[43]^[2]^[47]

Surface supplied diving skills are the skills and procedures required for the safe operation and use of surface-supplied diving equipment. Besides these skills, which may be categorised as standard operating procedures, emergency procedures and rescue procedures, there are the actual working skills required to do the job, and the procedures for safe operation of the work equipment other than diving equipment that may be needed.

Some of the skills are common to all types of surface-supplied equipment and deployment modes, others are specific to the type of bell or stage, or to saturation diving. There are other skills required of divers which apply to the surface support function, and some of those are also mentioned here.

Standard diving skills include skills like buoyancy control, finning, mask clearing, pre-dive checks and diver communications. They are used all the time, and are seldom lost due to lack of practice. Usually the diver gets better at these skills over time due to frequent repetition.

Emergency skills should seldom be needed, and may not be practiced often after training, but when an emergency occurs, the ability to perform the skill adequately, if not necessarily flawlessly, may be critical to the diver's health or survival.

Rescue skills are more relevant to keeping a co-worker alive than oneself. If lucky, a diver may never need to attempt the rescue of another, and these skills also need periodical scheduled repetition to retain competence. First aid skills are a similar category, and are generally re-assessed periodically to remain in date.^[31] It is generally considered a responsibility of the employer to ensure that their employees get sufficient practice in emergency and rescue skills.

Training methods for diving skills

Diving skills are practical skills, suitable for learning by performing and improvement by correct repetition and overlearning. Many of the diving skills are safety-critical – incorrect performance can put the diver or another person at risk, and in some cases incorrect response can be rapidly fatal. The skill is generally discussed, demonstrated by a skilled practitioner, and then attempted by the learner in controlled conditions. Repetition with feedback from the instructor is generally continued until the skill can be performed reliably under normal conditions. Professional, particularly military training, may overtrain skills until they are internalised to the extent of being conditioned reflexes, requiring very little conscious thought, as adequate performance under highly stressed conditions may be necessary for survival.

Training venues for diving skills

Initial skills training is restricted to Confined water, a diving environment that is enclosed and bounded sufficiently for safe training purposes. This generally implies that conditions are not affected by geographic or weather conditions, and that divers can not get lost. Swimming pools and diver training tanks are included in this category. A diver training tank is a container of water large and deep enough to practice diving and underwater work skills, usually with a window through which the exercises can be viewed by the instructor. Once competence has been demonstrated in confined water, repetition of skills in open water is usual. This is generally done in combinations that simulate realistic circumstances when reasonably practicable.

First aid skills

Most professional divers are required by national or state legislation to be qualified first aid providers to a specified standard. First aid training is not generally considered to be an integral part of diver training, but may be provided in parallel. First aid registration is generally valid for a limited period and must be updated to stay in-date to dive.^[2]

Underwater work skills

Underwater work skills may be included in professional diver training to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the requirements of the relevant training standard, which will specify the minimum, and the diving school, which may choose to offer more than the minimum as a premium service.

Specialist work skills are generally not part of diver training, and are either learned at a specialist training facility, from the equipment manufacturer, or from the employer at the workplace.

Training methods vary depending on the specific skill, but in many cases it is more effective to first learn the skill out of the water, where it is generally safer and easier, and where immediate feedback on problems is much simpler, then learn how to do it in the underwater environment. Some work skills used underwater are more complex and difficult to learn than diving skills – it is quicker to train a skilled welder to dive well than to train a skilled diver to weld well. This principle holds particularly for professional skills. A marine scientist or archaeologist may require 3 to 5 years full-time university study to become competent in their chosen field, but can be trained to do the relevant diving in about a month.^[2]

Competence assessment

Competence may be assessed in several ways. Theoretical knowledge and understanding is often amenable to assessment by written examination, which has the advantage of inherently providing a permanent record.

Practical skills are more generally assessed by direct observation of a demonstration of the skill, or by inference, where successful completion of an activity implies acceptable application of the skill. In some cases simulations are used, particularly for emergency skills. Records of practical assessment are usually in the form of a report made by the assessor, which may involve the use of a checklist to ensure that all aspects have been covered, and may also include video recordings.

The level of competence required depends on the safety implications of the skill. A qualified diver should be a low risk for causing injury or death to themselves or another member of the diving team when operating within the constraints of the training standard. Competence at assessment is no guarantee of competence at a future date. Retention and improvement of skills requires practice.

Quality assurance

The quality assurance of diver training is usually based on three basic components:^[52]

Diving schools

Diving schools are establishments where divers are trained and assessed. They range from a spare room in the home of a freelance recreational diving instructor, to a set of offices, classrooms, workshops, stores, accommodations and ancillary structures such as diving tanks, swimming pools, diving support vessels, saturation systems, hyperbaric chambers and similar, with associated staff and equipment, for a major military or commercial diving school. The minimum facilities for occupational diver training schools may be specified by a standard or code of practice, and in these cases the school may be periodically audited to ensure that the facilities comply with requirements.^[52]

Professional divers

Professional divers are generally trained firstly to dive safely as a member of a dive team, and secondly in underwater work skills specific to their employment. Registration as a professional diver does not necessarily imply competence in any specific work skills other than those commonly required by the majority of professional diving work. These may be specified in the training standard associated with the specific registration, but training standards can change over time and the skills required for original registration may no longer correspond in all details to the current standard, particularly where equipment use in the industry has changed over time. A diver who has been consistently employed can be reasonably expected to remain up to date with industry developments, but there may be cases where divers and supervisors do not keep up with developments.

Commercial divers

The training of commercial divers varies according to the legislative requirements of the country in which the diver will be registered. In several countries registration is through a government department or an NGO set up for the purpose. Some of these countries offer reciprocal recognition of diver qualification, allowing cross-border employment to divers with the relevant registration.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}} Diver training is usually done through registered diving schools within the jurisdiction of the relevant government, and to standards promulgated by a government department or national standards body.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}

Where there is no international recognition of divers registered by a foreign organisation, formal recognition of prior learning may be available through a registered diving school. This will often involve assessment to the same standards, often using the same assessment tools, as for the divers trained by the school. Formally logged records of diving experience may be recognised at face value, or may be verified by the assessing school.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}

Military divers

Military diver training is generally provided by a specialist diver training establishment of the same armed force that will employ the divers, often with further training in the deployment unit, though there is also a history of training provision by organisations in allied forces.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}

Public safety divers

Depending on the jurisdiction, public safety divers may be required to be registered as commercial divers, or may be trained independently by specialists, or may be initially trained as recreational divers, then given additional specialist training.^[57]^[58]

In addition to basic diving skills training, public safety divers require specialized training for recognizing hazards, conducting risk assessments, search procedures, diving in zero visibility, using full-face masks with communication systems, and recovering evidence that is admissible in court. Some of the water they are required to dive in is contaminated, and they may be required to wear vulcanized drysuits, with diving helmets sealed to the suit, and utilize surface supplied air. At times, the decontamination process that takes place out of the water can be longer than the dive time.^[58]

Scientific divers

When a scientific diving operation is part of the duties of the diver as an employee, the operation may be considered a professional diving operation subject to regulation as such. In these cases the training and registration may follow the same requirements as for other professional divers, or may include training standards specifically intended for scientific diving. In other cases, where the divers are in full control of their own diving operation, including planning and safety, diving as volunteers, the occupational health and safety regulations may not apply.^[31]^[61]

Where scientific diving is exempt from commercial diving regulation, training requirements may differ considerably, and in some cases basic scientific diver training and certification may not differ much from entry level recreational diver training.

Technological advances have made it possible for scientific divers to accomplish more on a dive, but they have also increased the complexity and the task loading of both the diving equipment and the work done, and consequently require higher levels of trainng and preparation to safely and effectively use this technology. It is preferable for effective learning and safety that such specialisation training is done systematically and under controlled conditions, rather than on site and on the job. Environmental conditions for training should include exercises in conditions as close as reasonably practicable to field conditions.^[62]

Training standards

In some cases national training standards and codes of practice will apply to professional diver training, assessment and registration, for example:

International equivalence

The International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum^[63] (IDRF) is a group of representatives of countries with national training standards for professional divers, who work together towards mutual recognition of diver registration and to identify and implement good practice in diver training and assessment.^[64] Members of the IDRF include ADAS (Australia), DCBC (Canada), HSE (UK), PSA (Norway), and the Secretariat General to the Sea Progress Committee (France).

A similar arrangement for international recognition of scientific divers within Europe exists. Two levels of scientific diver registration are recognised. These represent the minimum level of training and competence required to allow scientists to participate freely throughout the countries of the European Union in underwater research projects diving using scuba. Certification or registration by an authorized national agency is a prerequisite, and depth and breathing gas limitations may apply.^[65]

This competence may be gained either through a formal training program, by in the field training and experience under appropriate supervision, or by a combination of these methods.^[66] These standards specify the minimum basic training and competence for scientific divers, and do not consider any speciality skill requirements by employers. Further training for job-specific competence is additional to the basic competence implied by the registration.^[66]

Recreational divers

Recreational diver training is the process of developing knowledge and understanding of the basic principles, and the skills and procedures for the use of scuba equipment so that the diver is able to dive for recreational purposes with acceptable risk using the type of equipment and in similar conditions to those experienced during training.

Recreational scuba

Not only is the underwater environment hazardous but the diving equipment itself can be dangerous. There are problems that divers must learn to avoid and manage when they do occur. Divers need repeated practice and a gradual increase in challenge to develop and internalise the skills needed to control the equipment, to respond effectively if they encounter difficulties, and to build confidence in their equipment and themselves. Diver practical training starts with simple but essential procedures, and builds on them until complex procedures can be managed effectively. This may be broken up into several short training programmes, with certification issued for each stage,^[70] or combined into a few more substantial programmes with certification issued when all the skills have been mastered.^[71]^[72]

Many diver training organizations exist, throughout the world, offering diver training leading to certification: the issuing of a "Diving Certification Card," also known as a "C-card," or qualification card. This diving certification model originated at Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1952 after two divers died while using university-owned equipment and the SIO instituted a system where a card was issued after training as evidence of competence.^[73]^[74] Diving instructors affiliated to a diving certification agency may work independently or through a university, a dive club, a dive school or a dive shop. They will offer courses that should meet, or exceed, the standards of the certification organization that will certify the divers attending the course. The International Organization for Standardization has approved six recreational diving standards that may be implemented worldwide, and some of the standards developed by the (United States) RSTC are consistent with the applicable ISO Standards:^[75]

The initial open water training for a person who is medically fit to dive and a reasonably competent swimmer is relatively short. Many dive shops in popular holiday locations offer courses intended to teach a novice to dive in a few days, which can be combined with diving on the vacation.^[70] Other instructors and dive schools will provide more thorough training, which generally takes longer.^[72] Dive operators, dive shops, and cylinder filling stations may refuse to allow uncertified people to dive with them, hire diving equipment or have their diving cylinders filled. This may be an agency standard, company policy, or specified by legislation.^[78]

International standards equivalence

The International Organization for Standardization has approved six recreational diving standards that may be implemented worldwide (January 2007).

The listed standards developed by the (United States) RSTC are consistent with the applicable ISO Standards:^[75]

Technical diving

Technical diving requires specialised equipment and training. There are many technical training organisations: see the Technical Diving section in the list of diver certification organizations. Technical Diving International (TDI), Global Underwater Explorers (GUE), Professional Scuba Association International (PSAI), International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD) and National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI) were popular {{as of|2009|lc=on}}. Recent entries into the market include Unified Team Diving (UTD), InnerSpace Explorers (ISE) and Diving Science and Technology (DSAT), the technical arm of Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI). The Scuba Schools International (SSI) Technical Diving Program (TechXR – Technical eXtended Range) was launched in 2005.^[86]

British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC) training has always had a technical element to its higher qualifications, however, it has recently begun to introduce more technical level Skill Development Courses into all its training schemes by introducing technical awareness into its lowest level qualification of Ocean Diver, for example, and nitrox training will become mandatory. It has also recently introduced trimix qualifications and continues to develop closed circuit training.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

Freediving

In most jurisdictions, no certification is required for freediving, and the equipment is sold freely over the counter with no questions asked of the purchaser's competence to use it. Most freedivers learn the skills from practice, often with some coaching from a friend, and sometimes attend a formal training programme presented by a qualified and registered instructor, with assessment and certification of competence as the target.^[87]

Some recreational diver training agencies offer training and certification in freediving, sometimes known as a snorkel certificate.^[88]^[89]

Professional diver training standards may include freediving at basic level as part of scuba training and assessment.^[2]

Training of diving support personnel

Professional diving support personnel are the members of the professional diving team, which at minimum includes a working diver, a standby diver and a supervisor:

Support personnel who are not generally part of the dive team, and apply similarly to professional and recreational diving, include:

In all three of these cases requirements vary with national legislation. In some countries there is no specific requirement, in others some form of assessed competency may be necessary. Equipment technicians often have some equipment specific training from the equipment manufacturers, but the fundamental skill level required may vary considerably, and may depend on the specific tpes of equipment the technician is qualified to service, repair and inspect.

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