1. Medical uses

2. Side effects

3. Pharmacology
     Chemistry  

4. History

5. Society and culture
     Product liability lawsuit  

6. See also

7. References

8. External links

Common side effects include confusion and sleepiness and sedation.^[2] Alcohol or other sedatives can make this worse.^[2] It is unclear if use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is safe for the baby.^[2][8] Use is not recommended in those less than two years old due to potentially negative effects on breathing.^[2] Use by injection into a vein is not recommended due to potential skin damage.^[2] It is in the phenothiazine family of medications.^[2]

Promethazine was made in the 1940s by a team of scientists from Rhône-Poulenc laboratories.^[4] It was approved for medical use in the United States in 1951.^[2] It is a generic medication and is available under many brand names globally.^[5] The wholesale cost of the by mouth formulation is less than US$0.20 per dose as of 2018.^[6] In the United Kingdom this dose costs less than 0.25 pounds.^[7] In 2016 it was the 160th most prescribed medication in the United States with more than 3 million prescriptions.^[8]

Medical uses

Promethazine has a variety of medical uses, including:

• As a sedative^[9]
• For preoperative sedation and to counteract postnarcotic nausea^[9]
• To reduce nervousness, restlessness and agitation caused by psychiatric conditions (used for this purpose mainly in Europe)
• As antiallergic medication to combat hay fever (allergic rhinitis), etc., or to treat allergic reactions, alone or in combination with oral decongestants such as pseudoephedrine^[9]
• As an adjunct treatment for anaphylactoid conditions (IM/IV route preferred)^[9]
• Together with codeine or dextromethorphan against cough
• As a motion sickness or seasickness remedy when used with ephedrine or pseudoephedrine^[9]
• To combat moderate to severe morning sickness and hyperemesis gravidarum: In the UK, promethazine is drug of first choice, being preferred as an older drug with which there is a greater experience of use in pregnancy (second in line being metoclopramide or prochlorperazine).^[10]
• Previously, it was used as an antipsychotic,^[11] although it is generally not administered for this purpose now; promethazine has only approximately 1/10 of the antipsychotic strength of chlorpromazine.
• Treatment for migraines; however, other similar medications, like Compazine, have been shown to have a more favorable treatment profile,^[12] and are used almost exclusively over promethazine.

Side effects

Some documented side effects include:

• Tardive dyskinesia (effects due to dopamine D2 receptor antagonism)
• Confusion in the elderly
• Drowsiness, dizziness, fatigue, more rarely vertigo
• Dry mouth
• Respiratory depression in patients under age of two and in those with severely compromised pulmonary function
• Constipation
• Chest discomfort/pressure (typically in cases when patient is already taking medication for high blood pressure)
• Akathisia ^[13]
• Paresthesia
• Short temper/irritability

Extremely rare side effects include:

• Seizures
• Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
• Euphoria (very rare, except with high IV doses and/or coadministration with opioids/CNS depressants)

Because of potential for more severe side effects, this drug is on the list to avoid in the elderly.^[14] In many countries (including the US and UK), promethazine is contraindicated in children less than two years of age, and strongly cautioned against in children between two and six, due to problems with respiratory depression and sleep apnea.^[15]

Promethazine is listed as one of the drugs of highest anticholinergic activity in a study of anticholinergenic burden, including long-term cognitive impairment.^[16]

Pharmacology

Promethazine, a phenothiazine derivative, is structurally different from the neuroleptic phenothiazines, with similar but different effects.^[17] It acts primarily as a strong antagonist of the H₁ receptor (antihistamine) and a moderate mACh receptor antagonist (anticholinergic),^[17] and also has weak to moderate affinity for the 5-HT_2A,^[18] 5-HT_2C,^[18] D₂,^[19][20] and α₁-adrenergic receptors,^[21] where it acts as an antagonist at all sites, as well.

Another notable use of promethazine is as a local anesthetic, by blockade of sodium channels.^[21]

Chemistry

Solid promethazine hydrochloride is a white to faint-yellow, practically odorless, crystalline powder. Slow oxidation may occur upon prolonged exposure to air, usually causing blue discoloration. Its hydrochloride salt is freely soluble in water and somewhat soluble in alcohol. Promethazine is a chiral compound, occurring as a mixture of enantiomers.^[22]

History

Promethazine was first synthesized by a group at Rhone-Poulenc (which later became part of Sanofi) led by Paul Charpentier in the early 1940s.^[23] The team was seeking to improve on diphenhydramine; the same line on medical chemistry led to the creation of chlorpromazine.^[24]

Society and culture

As of July 2017 it was marketed under many brand names worldwide: Allersoothe, Antiallersin, Anvomin, Atosil, Avomine, Closin N, Codopalm, Diphergan, Farganesse, Fenazil, Fenergan, Fenezal, Frinova, Hiberna, Histabil, Histaloc, Histantil, Histazin, Histazine, Histerzin, Lenazine, Lergigan, Nufapreg, Otosil, Pamergan, Pharmaniaga, Phenadoz, Phenerex, Phenergan, Phénergan, Pipolphen, Polfergan, Proazamine, Progene, Prohist, Promet, Prometal, Prometazin, Prometazina, Promethazin, Prométhazine, Promethazinum, Promethegan, Promezin, Proneurin, Prothazin, Prothiazine, Prozin, Pyrethia, Quitazine, Reactifargan, Receptozine, Romergan, Sominex, Sylomet, Xepagan, Zinmet, and Zoralix.^[5]

It is also marketed in many combination drug formulations:

• with carbocisteine as Actithiol Antihistaminico, Mucoease, Mucoprom, Mucotal Prometazine, and Rhinathiol;
• with paracetamol (acetaminophen)as Algotropyl, Calmkid, Fevril, Phen Plus, and Velpro-P;
• with paracetamol and dextromethorphan as Choligrip na noc, Coldrex Nočná Liečba, Fedril Night Cold and Flu, Night Nurse, and Tachinotte;
• with paracetamol, phenylephrine, and salicylamide as Flukit;
• with dextromethorphan as Axcel Dextrozine and Hosedyl DM;
• with dextromethorphan and ephedrine as Methorsedyl;
• with dextromethorphan and pseudoephedrine as Sedilix-DM;
• with dextromethorphan and phenylephedrine as Sedilix-RX;
• with pholcodine as Codo-Q Junior and Tixylix;
• with pholcodine and ephedrine as Phensedyl Dry Cough Linctus;
• with pholcodine and phenylephedrine as Russedyl Compound Linctus;
• with pholcodine and phenylpropanolamine as Triple 'P';
• with codeine as Kefei and Procodin;
• with codeine and ephedrine as Dhasedyl, Fendyl, and P.E.C.;
• with ephedrine and dextromethorphan as Dhasedyl DM;
• with glutamic acid as Psico-Soma, and Psicosoma;
• with noscapine as Tussisedal; and
• with chlorpromazine and phenobarbital as Vegetamin.^[5]

Product liability lawsuit

In 2009, the US Supreme Court ruled on a product liability case involving promethazine. Diana Levine, a woman suffering from a migraine, was administered Wyeth's Phenergan via IV push. The drug was injected improperly, resulting in gangrene and subsequent amputation of her right forearm below the elbow. A state jury awarded her $6 million in punitive damages.

The case was appealed to the Supreme Court on grounds of federal preemption and substantive due process.^[25] The Supreme Court upheld the lower courts' rulings, stating that "Wyeth could have unilaterally added a stronger warning about IV-push administration" without acting in opposition to federal law.^[26] In effect, this means drug manufacturers can be held liable for injuries if warnings of potential adverse effects, approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), are deemed insufficient by state courts.

On September 9, 2009, the FDA required a boxed warning be put on promethazine for injection, stating the contraindication for subcutaneous administration. The preferred administrative route is intramuscular, which reduces risk of surrounding muscle and tissue damage.^[27]

See also

• Purple drank (a recreational drug concoction containing promethazine)

References

External links

• {{cite web |title=Promethazine |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/medmaster/a682284.html |publisher=U.S. National Library of Medicine and National Institutes of Health}}

• Tursas
• Tur (Shahnameh)
• Turshiya
• Turshiz
• Tur Shulchan Aruch
• Tursi
• Tur Sinai
• Tursiops aduncus
• Tur-Strato 4
• Tursunov
• Tursun Uldzhabayevich Uldzhabayev
• Tursun Uljabaev
• Tursun Uljabayev
• Tursunzade
• Tursunzoda
• Turtarrier
• Turteltaub
• Turteltaube
• Turtkleton
• Turtle (1775)
• Turtle (1968)
• Turtle back
• Turtle-back
• Turtleback
• Turtle Back