| 词条 | Electricity sector in Russia | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Russia is the fourth largest generator and consumer of electricity in the world. Its 440 power stations have a combined installed generation capacity of 220 GW.[1] The Russian electric grid links over {{convert|2000000|mi|km|order=flip}} of power lines, {{convert|93000|mi|km|order=flip}} of which are high voltage cables over 220 kV. Electricity generation is based largely on gas (46%), coal (18%), hydro (18%), and nuclear (17%) power. 60% of thermal generation (gas and coal) is from combined heat and power plants. Russia operates 31 nuclear power reactors in 10 locations, with an installed capacity of 21 GW.[1] Despite considerable geothermal, wind and wave resources, renewable energy production (other than hydro) accounts for less than one percent.[1] HistoryThe electric power industry has been a state monopoly since Soviet times. After the collapse of the Soviet Union Unified Energy System of Russia RAO UES was founded as state-owned (50%) company. From 1992-2008 it was the largest electric power holding company. Four energy companies - Novosibirskenergo, Tatenergo, Irkutskenergo and Bashenergo - managed to avoid incorporation into RAO UES.[2] Privatization and reformIn 2002, the Russian government began reforming the power sector. The main goal was and remains upgrading the aging and outdated heating and electricity infrastructure. The restructuring involved the separation and privatization of the generation, transmission and sales companies. The grids were brought under regulatory supervision.[1] Power generation was divided up into seven wholesale generating companies (OGK) – including RusHydro, 14 territorial generating companies (TGK), independents and state-owned entities. OGKs contain power plants and specialize mainly in electric power generation. TGKs contain predominantly combined heat and power plants (CHPs).[1] The gradual liberalization of the wholesale electricity market, completed in January 2011, now allows producers to charge market prices. The transmission grid remains mostly under state control.[1] As a result of the reorganization, Inter RAO UES became a major generating company in Russia in the field of export and import of electric power. The total installed capacity of the power plants owned or managed by the company is around 18,000 MW. The company’s main types of activities are generation of electric and thermal power, sales of electric and thermal power to consumers and export and import of electric power.[1] Post-reform developmentsPrice increase followed the reform process, 3-4 times the margin set by regulatory authorities.[9] In November 2011, then prime minister Vladimir Putin tasked the Ministry for Economic Development (Russia), the Ministry of Energy (Russia) and the 'Federal Tariffs Service' to draft a government resolution restricting the profitability of electric utilities. This "restricted the ability of electric utilities to make money from providing services other than supplying electricity"[9] As of 2013, Russia had no wholesale electricity market. The Ministry for Energy of Russia, concerned with price increases envisions a wholesale market under bi-lateral contracts between consumers and specific power plants. Inter RAO and Gazprom Energy Holding were lobbying for a different one.[3] Equipment producersPower Machines is the leading Russian equipment producer, with a share of over 50%.[1] It unites production, supply, construction, maintenance and modernization of equipment for thermal, nuclear, hydraulic and gas turbine power plants. The following big international energy equipment holdings are well established and have joint ventures or their own production facilities in Russia: General Electric, Siemens, Alstom, ABB, Skoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ansaldo Energia, and Areva.[1]Power companiesTerritorial generating companies
Wholesale generating and other companies
Transmission and distribution companies
Supply companiesLargest supply companies:[6]
Isolated energy systemsSome parts of the country have limited connections to the Russian unified energy system, reducing the likelihood that new companies will enter the energy supply market by importing energy from neighboring energy systems. Those areas, defined as "non-price" zones, include Kaliningrad Oblast, the Komi Republic, Arkhangelsk Oblast, the south of the Sakha Republic, Primorsk Krai, Khabarovsk Krai, Amur Oblast, and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.[16] Additionally, some parts of Russia are completely isolated from the unified energy system, including Kamchatka, Magadan Oblast, Sakhalin Oblast, Chukotka and Taimyr Autonomous Okrug, the western and central parts of the Sakha Republic, as well as many remote settlements across the country.[7] Energy prices in "non-price" and isolated regions are exempt from liberalization and remain regulated.[7] Consumption
In 2008 the end use of electricity was 4.3% (726 TWh) of the world total (16,819 TWh).[8] In 2008 the gross production of electricity was 5.1% (1,038 TWh) of the world total (20,181 TWh).[9] Mode of production
According to the IEA the Russian gross production of electricity was 1,038 TWh in 2008 and 930 TWh in 2004 giving the 4th top position among the world producers in 2008. Top ten countries produced 67 % of electricity in 2008. The top producers were: 1) United States 21.5% 2) China 17.1% 3) Japan 5.3% 4) Russia 5.1% 5) India 4.1% 6) Canada 3.2% 7) Germany 3.1% 8) France 2.8% 9) Brazil 2.3% and 10) South Korea 2.2%. The rest of the world produced 33%.[9][10] GasThe share of natural gas fuelled electricity was 48% of the gross electricity production in 2008 in Russia (495 TWh / 1,038 TWh.[9] Coal and peatThe share of coal and peat electricity was 19% of the gross electricity production in 2008 in Russia (187 TWh / 1,038 TWh).[9] Nuclear power{{See also | Nuclear power in Russia}}In 2008 Russian federation was the 4th country by nuclear electricity production with 163 TWh (6% of the world total). According to the IEA 15.7% of Russian domestic electricity was generated by nuclear power in 2008. [9] In 2009 Russia had in total 31 nuclear reactors [11] and installed capacity in 2008 23 GW.[9] Nuclear reactor construction and exportIn 2006 Russia had exported nuclear reactors to Armenia, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, India, Iran, Lithuania, Slovak Republic and Ukraine. In Russia, the average construction time was in 1) 1965-1976 57 months and 2) 1977-1993 72–89 months, but the four plants that have been completed since then have taken around 180 months (15 years), due to increased opposition following the Chernobyl accident and the political changes after 1992.[12] HydropowerIn 2008, hydroelectricity generated 167 TWh from a total capacity of 47 GW. The country is the 5th largest producer of electricity from hydropower in the world, accounting for 5.1% of the world's hydroelectric generation. The use of other renewable sources for electricity in 2008 was not significant in Russian Federation according to the statistics of IEA in terms of electricity volume in 2008.[13] Electricity importsAs of 2010, Russia imports 17.5% of its total electricity consumption, with about 90% originating from Kazakhstan and Georgia.[6] Inter RAO has a monopoly on electricity imports in the country.[6] Power stations{{See also|List of power stations in Russia}}Kyoto carbon allowancesThe revenues from Kyoto allowances via Joint Implementation projects sales can be significant – in the billions of euros in the cases of Russia. If a number of (relatively strict) criteria were filled JI projects could be implemented during the Kyoto protocol agreement, for which no international third-party checking or UN approval was needed. According to Transparency International a lack of regulation in carbon trading poses the risk of fraud. In 2009 it was not in all cases clear which government organisations had the authority to sell the surplus and how transparently and accountably such transfers of public wealth were carried out.[14] See also
References1. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 {{cite web|title=Russia Electric Power Generation & Transmission Equipment Overview|url=https://build.export.gov/main/trademissions/russiaenergy/eg_main_045461|website=Export.gov|accessdate=4 September 2017|date=23 February 2012|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218144934/https://build.export.gov/main/trademissions/russiaenergy/eg_main_045461|archivedate=18 February 2017|df=dmy-all}} {{PD-notice}} 2. ^{{cite book|last1=Wengle|first1=Susanne A.|title=Post-Soviet Power|date=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107072480|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uMaTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA146|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908163725/https://books.google.com/books?id=uMaTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA146|archivedate=8 September 2017|df=dmy-all}} 3. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=The Russian electric power industry: still in transition|url=http://www.russian-survey.com/market-breakdown/188-the-russian-electric-power-industry-still-in-transition|work=Russian Survey|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=10 April 2014|author=Larisa Makeeva|author2=Elena Kudryavtseva|date=June 2013|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413154703/http://www.russian-survey.com/market-breakdown/188-the-russian-electric-power-industry-still-in-transition|archivedate=13 April 2014|df=dmy-all}} 4. ^{{cite book|last1=Connor|first1=John T.|title=Out of the Red: Investment and Capitalism in Russia|date=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781118160763|page=117|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=siVqNhDai-YC&pg=PT117|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904084523/https://books.google.com/books?id=siVqNhDai-YC&pg=PT117|archivedate=4 September 2017|df=dmy-all}} 5. ^{{cite news |last=Shuster |first=Simon |title=State Keeps Control in UES Sell-Off |url=http://oldtmt.vedomosti.ru/sitemap/free/2007/3/article/state-keeps-control-in-ues-sell-off/198638.html |newspaper=The Moscow Times |date=5 March 2007 |accessdate=5 December 2018}} 6. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=Electricity regulation in the Russian Federation: overview|url=https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/6-527-2969?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)&firstPage=true&bhcp=1|website=Practical Law UK Signon|accessdate=8 September 2017}} 7. ^1 2 3 {{cite book|last1=Boute|first1=Anatole|title=Russian Electricity and Energy Investment Law|date=2015|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004203280|pages=82, 247, 399|url=http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/9789004203280|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908163726/http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/9789004203280|archivedate=8 September 2017|df=dmy-all}} 8. ^1 Energy in Sweden, Facts and figures 2010 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016045634/http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p=Energimyndigheten&view=default&cat=%2FBroschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f |date=16 October 2013 }}, The Swedish Energy Agency Table 58 (Source IEA) 9. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 IEA Key stats 2010 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011091637/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf |date=11 October 2010 }} pages electricity 27 gas 13,25 fossil 25 nuclear 17 10. ^1 IEA Key energy statistics 2006 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012043312/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2006/key2006.pdf |date=12 October 2009 }} 11. ^Al Gore Our Choice, A plan to solve the climate crises, Bloomsbury 2009 pages 156, 159 12. ^The Economics of Nuclear Power{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Greenpeace 5.12.2007 13. ^IEA Key stats 2010 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011091637/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf |date=11 October 2010 }} pages 19 and 27 14. ^Global Corruption Report 2009, Corruption and the Private Sector {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320054022/http://www.transparency.org/publications/publications/global_corruption_report/gcr2009 |date=20 March 2012 }} Transparency International 2009 page 45 External links
1 : Electric power in Russia |
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