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词条 Hydraulic fracturing
释义

  1. Geology

     Mechanics  Veins  Dikes 

  2. History

      Precursors    20th century applications    Oil and gas wells    Massive fracturing    Shales  

  3. Process

     Method  Well types  Fracturing fluids  Fracture monitoring   Microseismic monitoring   Horizontal completions 

  4. Uses

  5. Economic effects

  6. Public debate

     Politics and public policy  Documentary films  Research issues 

  7. {{visible anchor|Health risks|Health effects}}

  8. Environmental impacts

  9. Regulations

  10. See also

  11. References

  12. Further reading

{{About|hydraulic fracturing|the practice in the United States|Hydraulic fracturing in the United States|its use by country|Hydraulic fracturing by country}}{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}

The potential environmental impacts of hydraulic fracturing include air emissions and climate change, high water consumption, groundwater contamination, land use, risk of earthquakes, noise pollution, and health effects on humans. [61] Air emissions are primarily methane that escapes from wells, along with industrial emissions from equipment used in the extraction process.[174] Modern UK and EU regulation requires zero emissions of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.[62] Escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in ones built under more recent EU legislation.[174]

Hydraulic fracturing uses between {{convert|1.2|and|3.5|e6USgal|m3}} of water per well, with large projects using up to {{convert|5|e6USgal|m3}}. Additional water is used when wells are refractured.[68][192] An average well requires {{convert |3|to|8|e6USgal|m3}} of water over its lifetime.[60] According to the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, greater volumes of fracturing fluids are required in Europe, where the shale depths average 1.5 times greater than in the U.S.[194] Surface water may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits,[195] and ground water can be contaminated if the fluid is able to escape the formation being fractured (through, for example, abandoned wells, fractures, and faults[63]) or by produced water (the returning fluids, which also contain dissolved constituents such as minerals and brine waters). The possibility of groundwater contamination from brine and fracturing fluid leakage through old abandoned wells is low.[64][164] Produced water is managed by underground injection, municipal and commercial wastewater treatment and discharge, self-contained systems at well sites or fields, and recycling to fracture future wells.[199] Typically less than half of the produced water used to fracture the formation is recovered.[65]

About {{convert|3.6|ha}} of land is needed per each drill pad for surface installations. Well pad and supporting structure construction significantly fragments landscapes which likely has negative effects on wildlife.[66] These sites need to be remediated after wells are exhausted.[174] Research indicates that effects on ecosystem services costs (i.e. those processes that the natural world provides to humanity)has reached over $250 million per year in the U.S.[67] Each well pad (in average 10 wells per pad) needs during preparatory and hydraulic fracturing process about 800 to 2,500 days of noisy activity, which affect both residents and local wildlife. In addition, noise is created by continuous truck traffic (sand, etc.) needed in hydraulic fracturing.[174] Research is underway to determine if human health has been affected by air and water pollution, and rigorous following of safety procedures and regulation is required to avoid harm and to manage the risk of accidents that could cause harm.[164]

In July 2013, the US Federal Railroad Administration listed oil contamination by hydraulic fracturing chemicals as "a possible cause" of corrosion in oil tank cars.[68]

Hydraulic fracturing has been sometimes linked to induced seismicity or earthquakes.[69] The magnitude of these events is usually too small to be detected at the surface, although tremors attributed to fluid injection into disposal wells have been large enough to have often been felt by people, and to have caused property damage and possibly injuries.[13][209][210][70][71][72] A U.S. Geological Survey reported that up to 7.9 million people in several states have a similar earthquake risk to that of California with hydraulic fracturing and similar practices being a prime contributing factor.[73]

Microseismic events are often used to map the horizontal and vertical extent of the fracturing.[102] A better understanding of the geology of the area being fracked and used for injection wells can be helpful in mitigating the potential for significant seismic events.[74]

People obtain drinking water from either surface water, which includes rivers and reservoirs, or groundwater aquifers, accessed by public or private wells. There are already a host of documented instances in which nearby groundwater has been contaminated by fracking activities, requiring residents with private wells to obtain outside sources of water for drinking and everyday use.[75][76]

Despite these health concerns and efforts to institute a moratorium on fracking until its environmental and health effects are better understood, the United States continues to rely heavily on fossil fuel energy. Currently, 36% of annual U.S. energy consumption is derived from petroleum, 26% from natural gas, 20% from coal, and 8% from nuclear sources, with only 9% supplied by renewable energy, such as wind and solar power.[77]

Regulations

{{See also|Hydraulic fracturing by country|Regulation of hydraulic fracturing}}

Countries using or considering use of hydraulic fracturing have implemented different regulations, including developing federal and regional legislation, and local zoning limitations.[220][221] In 2011, after public pressure France became the first nation to ban hydraulic fracturing, based on the precautionary principle as well as the principle of preventive and corrective action of environmental hazards.[16][17][78][79] The ban was upheld by an October 2013 ruling of the Constitutional Council.[80] Some other countries such as Scotland have placed a temporary moratorium on the practice due to public health concerns and strong public opposition.[227] Countries like the United Kingdom and South Africa have lifted their bans, choosing to focus on regulation instead of outright prohibition.[228][81] Germany has announced draft regulations that would allow using hydraulic fracturing for the exploitation of shale gas deposits with the exception of wetland areas.[230] In China, regulation on shale gas still faces hurdles, as it has complex interrelations with other regulatory regimes, especially trade.[82] Many states in Australia have either permanently or temporarily banned fracturing for hydrocarbons.[83]

The European Union has adopted a recommendation for minimum principles for using high-volume hydraulic fracturing.[18] Its regulatory regime requires full disclosure of all additives.[234] In the United States, the Ground Water Protection Council launched FracFocus.org, an online voluntary disclosure database for hydraulic fracturing fluids funded by oil and gas trade groups and the U.S. Department of Energy.[235][236] Hydraulic fracturing is excluded from the Safe Drinking Water Act's underground injection control's regulation, except when diesel fuel is used. The EPA assures surveillance of the issuance of drilling permits when diesel fuel is employed.[84]

In 2012, Vermont became the first state in the United States to ban hydraulic fracturing. On 17 December 2014, New York became the second state to issue a complete ban on any hydraulic fracturing due to potential risks to human health and the environment.[85][86][87]

See also

  • Dayne Pratzky
  • Directional drilling
  • Drew Hutton
  • Environmental concerns with electricity generation
  • Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing
  • Environmental impact of petroleum
  • Environmental impact of the oil shale industry
  • Frackman
  • Hydraulic fracturing by country
  • Hydraulic fracturing in the United States
  • Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom
  • In-situ leach
  • Stranded asset
  • Shale oil extraction

References

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155. ^1 {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/02/27/us/natural-gas-documents-1.html#document/p533/a9948 |title=Natural Gas Documents |date=27 February 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times |accessdate=5 May 2012 |quote=The Times reviewed more than 30,000 pages of documents obtained through open records requests of state and federal agencies and by visiting various regional offices that oversee drilling in Pennsylvania. Some of the documents were leaked by state or federal officials.}}
156. ^1 {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/04/us/20110304_natural-gas-documents-intro.html |title=The Debate Over the Hydrofracking Study's Scope |quote= While environmentalists have aggressively lobbied the agency to broaden the scope of the study, industry has lobbied the agency to narrow this focus |date=3 March 2011 |newspaper = The New York Times |accessdate=1 May 2012}}
157. ^1 2 {{cite journal | url= https://www.slb.com/~/media/Files/resources/oilfield_review/ors05/win05/04_the_source_for_hydraulic.ashx |title= The Source for Hydraulic Fracture Characterization | journal = Oilfield Review | pages = 42–57 | issue = Winter 2005/2006 | author = Bennet, Les|format = PDF | accessdate = 30 September 2012|display-authors=etal}}
158. ^1 {{cite news |url = http://www.timesleaderonline.com/page/content.detail/id/545690/Oil-gas-boom-spawns-Harrison-safety-talks.html?nav=5010 |first=Mike |last=Palmer |date=27 March 2013 | newspaper =Times Leader | title=Oil-gas boom spawns Harrison safety talks | accessdate=27 March 2013}}
159. ^1 {{cite report |title=Water Withdrawals for Development of Marcellus Shale Gas in Pennsylvania. Introduction to Pennsylvania’s Water Resources |first1=Charles W. |last1=Abdalla |first2= Joy R. |last2=Drohan |publisher = The Pennsylvania State University |quote= Hydrofracturing a horizontal Marcellus well may use 4 to 8 million gallons of water, typically within about 1 week. However, based on experiences in other major U.S. shale gas fields, some Marcellus wells may need to be hydrofractured several times over their productive life (typically five to twenty years or more)|url=http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/ua460.pdf | year = 2010 | format = PDF |accessdate=16 September 2012}}
160. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Penny |first1=Glenn S. |last2=Conway |first2=Michael W. |last3=Lee |first3=Wellington |title=Control and Modeling of Fluid Leakoff During Hydraulic Fracturing |date=June 1985 |pages=1071–1081 |volume=37 |issue=6 |journal=Journal of Petroleum Technology |doi=10.2118/12486-PA }}
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162. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite report|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/332837/PHE-CRCE-009_3-7-14.pdf |title=Review of the Potential Public Health Impacts of Exposures to Chemical and Radioactive Pollutants as a Result of the Shale Gas Extraction Process | first1 = A. | last1 = Kibble | first2 = T. | last2 = Cabianca | first3 = Z. | last3 = Daraktchieva | first4 = T. | last4 = Gooding | first5 = J. | last5 = Smithard | first6 = G. | last6 = Kowalczyk | first7 = N. P. | last7 = McColl | first8 = M. | last8 = Singh | first9 = L. | last9 = Mitchem | first10 = P. | last10 = Lamb | first11 = S. | last11 = Vardoulakis | first12 = R. | last12 = Kamanyire |publisher=Public Health England |docket=PHE-CRCE-009 |date=June 2014 |isbn = 978-0-85951-752-2 | format = PDF}}
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166. ^1 {{Cite news|last=Gerhardt|first=Tina|date=31 December 2012|title=Matt Damon Exposes Fracking in Promised Land|url=http://www.progressive.org/matt-damon-exposes-fracking-in-promised-land|newspaper=The Progressive | accessdate = 4 January 2013}}
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171. ^1 {{cite news |url =http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2013/07/12/3801578.htm|title=News in Science: Earthquakes may trigger fracking tremors | first =Sharon |last=Begley |first2=Edward |last2=McAllister |date=12 July 2013 |work= ABC Science |publisher= Reuters | accessdate=17 December 2013}}
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176. ^1 {{cite news |url=http://www.eenews.net/public/energywire/2012/03/12/1 |title=Quiet foundation funds the 'anti-fracking' fight |first=Mike |last=Soraghan |date=12 March 2012 |newspaper=E&E News | quote="In our work to oppose fracking, the Park Foundation has simply helped to fuel an army of courageous individuals and NGOs,' or non-governmental organizations, said Adelaide Park Gomer, foundation president and Park heir, in a speech late last year." | accessdate=27 March 2013}}
177. ^1 {{cite news |url=http://www.eenews.net/eenewspm/2012/06/21/archive/2 |title=White House official backs FracFocus as preferred disclosure method |first=Mike |last=Soraghan |date=13 December 2013 |newspaper=E&E News | accessdate=27 March 2013}}
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179. ^1 {{cite journal | year = 2013 | title = New Research of Surface Spills in Fracking Industry | url = | journal = Professional Safety | volume = 58 | issue = 9| page = 18 }}
180. ^1 {{cite web | url= http://www.undeerc.org/bakken/completiontechnologies.aspx |title= Completion Technologies | publisher = EERC | accessdate = 30 September 2012}}
181. ^1 2 {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/04/us/04gas.html |title=Pressure Limits Efforts to Police Drilling for Gas |first=Ian |last=Urbina |quote=More than a quarter-century of efforts by some lawmakers and regulators to force the federal government to police the industry better have been thwarted, as E.P.A. studies have been repeatedly narrowed in scope and important findings have been removed |date=3 March 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times |accessdate=23 February 2012}}
182. ^1 {{cite web |url=https://www.law.upenn.edu/blogs/regblog/2012/08/8-narayan-guar-gum.html |title=From Food to Fracking: Guar Gum and International Regulation |author=Ram Narayan |date=8 August 2012 |work=RegBlog |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Law School |accessdate=15 August 2012}}
183. ^1 {{cite report |title= Fact-Based Regulation for Environmental Protection in Shale Gas Development | url = http://cewc.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/ei_shale_gas_regulation120215.pdf |author=Energy Institute |publisher=University of Texas at Austin |format = PDF | date=February 2012 |accessdate=29 February 2012}}
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185. ^1 {{cite report |url= http://www.worldwatch.org/files/pdf/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20Paper.pdf |title=Addressing the Environmental Risks from Shale Gas Development |first1=Mark |last1= Zoback |first2= Saya |last2= Kitasei |first3= Brad |last3= Copithorne | date=July 2010 |page=9 |publisher= Worldwatch Institute |format=PDF |accessdate=24 May 2012}}
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Further reading

{{refbegin|2}}
  • {{cite web | last1 = Kiparsky | first1 = Michael | last2 = Hein | first2 = Jayni Foley | title = Regulation of Hydraulic Fracturing in California: A Wastewater and Water Quality Perspective | url = https://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/ccelp/Wheeler_HydraulicFracturing_April2013.pdf | publisher = University of California Center for Law, Energy, and the Environment | date = April 2013 | accessdate = 1 May 2014}}
  • {{cite journal|last=Ridlington|first=Elizabeth|author2=John Rumpler|title=Fracking by the numbers|journal=Environment America|date=3 October 2013|url=http://www.environmentamerica.org/reports/ame/fracking-numbers}}
  • {{cite web |title=DISH, TExas Exposure Investigation |url=http://www.dshs.state.tx.us/epitox/consults/dish_ei_2010.pdf | publisher= Texas DSHS |accessdate=27 March 2013}}
  • {{cite report |url=http://www.cuadrillaresources.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Geomechanical-Study-of-Bowland-Shale-Seismicity_02-11-11.pdf |title=Geomechanical Study of Bowland Shale Seismicity |first1=C.J. |last1=de Pater |first2=S. |last2=Baisch |date=2 November 2011 |publisher=Cuadrilla Resources |accessdate=22 February 2012 |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140215144110/http://www.cuadrillaresources.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Geomechanical-Study-of-Bowland-Shale-Seismicity_02-11-11.pdf |archivedate=15 February 2014 |df=dmy-all }}
  • {{Cite journal |last1=McKenzie |first1=Lisa |last2=Witter |first2=Roxana|last3=Newman |first3=Lee |last4=Adgate |first4=John | title= Human health risk assessment of air emissions from development of unconventional natural gas resources |year= 2012 |journal= Science of the Total Environment |volume=424 |pages=79–87 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.02.018 |pmid=22444058|citeseerx=10.1.1.368.4553 }}
  • {{cite web |url= http://www2.epa.gov/hfstudy/hydraulic-fracturing-water-cycle |title= The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle| date=16 March 2014 |publisher=EPA |accessdate= 10 October 2014}}
  • {{cite journal|url=http://www.efdsystems.org/Portals/25/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20BMPs%20White%20Paper.pdf |title=Hydraulic Fracturing: Environmentally Friendly Practices |publisher=Houston Advanced Research Center |first1=John Michael |last1=Fernandez |first2=Matthew |last2=Gunter |accessdate=29 December 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527000429/http://www.efdsystems.org/Portals/25/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20BMPs%20White%20Paper.pdf |archivedate=27 May 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
  • {{Cite journal |last1=Colborn |first1=Theo |last2=Kwiatkowski |first2=Carol|last3=Schultz |first3=Kim |last4=Bachran |first4=Mary | title= Natural gas operations from public health perspective |year= 2011 |journal= Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=1039–1056 |doi=10.1080/10807039.2011.605662}}
  • {{cite report |url= http://extension.psu.edu/natural-resources/water/marcellus-shale/waste-water/current-and-emerging-treatment-and-disposal-technologies |title=Marcellus Shale Wastewater Issues in Pennsylvania—Current and Emerging Treatment and Disposal Technologies |last=Abdalla |first=Charles W.|last2=Drohan |first2=Joy R. |last3=Blunk |first3=Kristen Saacke |last4=Edson |first4=Jessie |date=2014 |publisher=Penn State Extension |format=PDF |accessdate=11 October 2014}}
  • {{cite report |url= http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/pdf/20100210093849_large.pdf |title=An overview of modern shale gas development in the United States |first1=J. Daniel |last1= Arthur |first2=Bruce |last2= Langhus |first3= David |last3= Alleman | page=21 | year = 2008|publisher=ALL Consulting |accessdate=7 May 2012| format = PDF}}
  • {{cite report |url= http://www.lexisnexis.com/store/catalog/booktemplate/productdetail.jsp?prodId=prod20232059 |title=The Legal and Regulatory Landscape of Hydraulic Fracturing |first1=J. Cullen |last1= Howe |first2=Stephen |last2= Del Percio |publisher=LexisNexis |accessdate=7 May 2014}}
  • {{cite journal | first1 = L. J. | last2= Connor |first2 = J. A. | last3= Shahla | first3 = K. F. |last4= Wylie |first4= A. S. | last5 = Wagner | first5= T.|title=Methane in Pennsylvania Water Wells Unrelated to Marcellus Shale Fracturing |journal=Oil and Gas Journal |date=5 December 2011 |pages=54–67 | url = http://www.ogj.com/1/vol-109/issue-49/exploration-development/methane-in-pennsylvania-water-full.html | volume = 109 | issue = 49|last1=Molofsky}}
  • {{cite book |title=World Energy Outlook 2011 | year= 2011 | author=IEA | publisher = OECD | isbn = 9789264124134 | pages = 91; 164}}
  • {{cite web |url= http://www.usgs.gov/faq/?q=categories/10132/3830 |title= How is hydraulic fracturing related to earthquakes and tremors? |publisher= USGS |accessdate= 4 November 2012 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20141019024105/http://www.usgs.gov/faq/?q=categories%2F10132%2F3830 |archivedate= 19 October 2014 |df= dmy-all }}
  • {{cite report|url=http://mitei.mit.edu/system/files/NaturalGas_Report.pdf |author=Moniz, Ernest J. |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |title=The Future of Natural Gas: An Interdisciplinary MIT Study |date=June 2011 |format=PDF |accessdate=1 June 2012 |display-authors=etal |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312072026/http://mitei.mit.edu/system/files/NaturalGas_Report.pdf |archivedate=12 March 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
  • {{cite news |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=shale-gas-and-hydraulic-fracturing|title=Natural gas cracked out of shale deposits may mean the U.S. has a stable supply for a century – but at what cost to the environment and human health? |last=Biello | first = David |date=30 March 2010 |publisher=Scientific American |accessdate=23 March 2012}}
  • {{cite journal|title=Blind Rush? Shale Gas Boom Proceeds Amid Human Health Questions|last =Schmidt | first = Charles |date=1 August 2011 |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=119 | issue = 8 |pages=a348–a353|doi=10.1289/ehp.119-a348 |pmc= 3237379 |pmid=21807583}}
  • {{cite journal | url= http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/09/10/1304880110.full.pdf+html | title=Measurements of methane emissions at natural gas production sites in the United States|last1=Allen |first1=David T. |last2=Torres |first2=Vincent N. |last3=Thomas |first3=James |last4=Sullivan |first4=David W. |last5=Harrison |first5=Matthew |last6=Hendler |first6=Al |last7=Herndon |first7=Scott C. |last8=Kolb |first8=Charles E. |last9=Fraser |first9=Matthew P. |last10=Hill |first10=A. Daniel |last11=Lamb |first11=Brian K. |last12=Miskimins |first12=Jennifer |last13=Sawyer |first13=Robert F. |last14=Seinfeld |first14=John H. |journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1304880110 | pmid=24043804| pmc=3816463|date=16 September 2013| accessdate = 2 October 2013 | format = PDF | volume=110 | issue=44| pages=17768–17773| bibcode=2013PNAS..11017768A}}
  • {{Cite journal |last=Kassotis |first=Christopher D. |last2=Tillitt |first2=Donald E. |last3=Davis |first3=J. Wade |last4=Hormann |first4= Annette M.|last5=Nagel |first5=Susan C. |title=Estrogen and Androgen Receptor Activities of Hydraulic Fracturing Chemicals and Surface and Ground Water in a Drilling-Dense Region |date=March 2014 | volume = 155 | issue = 3 |journal=Endocrinology |doi=10.1210/en.2013-1697 |pmid=24424034 |pages=897–907}}
  • {{Cite journal |last=Chalupka|first=S. |url=http://dbproxy.lasalle.edu:2053/docview/1095508837?pq-origsite=summon |title=Occupational Silica Exposure in Hydraulic Fracturing |date=October 2012 | volume = 60 | issue = 10 |page=460|journal=Workplace Health & Safety |accessdate=10 October 2014 |doi=10.3928/21650799-20120926-70|pmid=23054167 }}
  • {{Cite journal |last=Smith|first=S. |url=http://dbproxy.lasalle.edu:2053/docview/1095508837?pq-origsite=summon |title=Respirators Are Not Enough: New Study Examines Worker Exposure to Silica in Hydraulic Fracturing Operations |date=1 August 2014|journal=EHS Today |accessdate=10 October 2014}}
  • {{cite web|url=http://www.ohiodnr.com/Portals/11/pdf/wastewater-fact-sheet.pdf |title=Waste water (flowback)from hydraulic fracturing |publisher=Ohio Department of Natural Resources |accessdate=29 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508195902/http://ohiodnr.com/Portals/11/pdf/wastewater-fact-sheet.pdf |archivedate=8 May 2012 |df=dmy-all }}
  • {{cite report | url = http://www.cdph.ca.gov/certlic/drinkingwater/Documents/DWdocuments/memo97-005.pdf| title = Policy Memo 97-005 Policy Guidance for Direct Domestic Use of Extremely Impaired Sources| first = David P. | last = Spath, Ph.D., P.E. | date = November 1997 | publisher = State of California Department of Health Services | accessdate = 7 October 2014 | format = PDF}}
  • {{cite web |last= Weinhold |first= Bob |date= 19 September 2012 |title= Unknown Quantity: Regulating Radionuclides in Tap Water |url= http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/120-a350/ |quote = Examples of human activities that may lead to radionuclide exposure include mining, milling, and processing of radioactive substances; wastewater releases from the hydraulic fracturing of oil and natural gas wells... Mining and hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking", can concentrate levels of uranium (as well as radium, radon, and thorium) in wastewater... | work= Environmental Health Perspectives | publisher = NIEHS, NIH | accessdate = 11 February 2012 }}
  • {{cite video | people = Rachel Maddow, Terrence Henry | title =Rachel Maddow Show: Fracking waste messes with Texas | medium = video | publisher = MSNBC | date=7 August 2012 |accessdate= 30 September 2012 | time = 9:24 – 10:35 }}
  • {{cite report |url=http://ar.water.usgs.gov/Fayetteville_Shale/abstracts.pdf |title=Modeling the Effects of Non-Riparian Surface Water Diversions on Flow Conditions in the Little Red Watershed |last=Cothren |first=Jackson |quote=...each well requires between 3 and 7 million gallons of water for hydraulic fracturing and the number of wells is expected to grow in the future |publisher=U. S. Geological Survey, Arkansas Water Science Center Arkansas Water Resources Center, American Water Resources Association, Arkansas State Section Fayetteville Shale Symposium 2012 |accessdate=16 September 2012 |format = PDF | page = 12}}
  • {{cite report|url=http://scrantontimestribune.com/waterproject/970.pdf |last=Janco |first=David F. |date=1 February 2007 |title=PADEP Determination Letter No. 970. Diminution of Snow Shoe Borough Authority Water Well No. 2; primary water source for about 1,000 homes and businesses in and around the borough; contested by Range Resources. Determination Letter acquired by the Scranton Times-Tribune via Right-To-Know Law request. |publisher=Scranton Times-Tribune |accessdate=27 December 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227233416/http://scrantontimestribune.com/waterproject/970.pdf |archivedate=27 December 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
  • {{cite report|url=http://scrantontimestribune.com/waterproject/352.pdf |last=Janco |first=David F. |date=3 January 2008 |title=PADEP Determination Letter No. 352 Determination Letter acquired by the Scranton Times-Tribune via Right-To-Know Law request. Order: Atlas Miller 42 and 43 gas wells; Aug 2007 investigation; supplied temporary buffalo for two springs, ordered to permanently replace supplies |publisher=Scranton Times-Tribune |accessdate=27 December 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227234448/http://scrantontimestribune.com/waterproject/352.pdf |archivedate=27 December 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
  • {{Cite journal|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-fracking-wastewater-wells-poisoning-ground-beneath-our-feeth/ |last=Lustgarten|first=Abrahm |title=Are Fracking Wastewater Wells Poisoning the Ground beneath Our Feet? Leaking injection wells may pose a risk—and the science has not kept pace with the growing glut of wastewater|journal=Scientific American|date=21 June 2012|accessdate=11 October 2014}}
  • {{Cite journal |last=Rabinowitz|first=Peter M. |last2= Rabinowitz |first2=Ilya B. | last3=Slizovskiy | first3=Vanessa| last4=Lamers | first4=Sally J. |last5=Trufan | first5=Theodore R.| last6=Holford |first6=James D. |last7=Dziura | first7=Peter N. |last8=Peduzzi |first8=Michael J. |last9=Kane |first9=John S. |last10=Reif |first10= John|last11= Weiss |first11=Theresa R. |last12= Stowe1 |first12=Meredith H. |title=Proximity to Natural Gas Wells and Reported Health Status: Results of a Household Survey in Washington County, Pennsylvania |date=2014 |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |doi=10.1289/ehp.1307732 | pmid=25204871 | pmc=4286272 | volume=123 |issue=1 | pages=21–6}}
  • {{cite conference |url= http://fracfocus.org/sites/default/files/publications/water_resources_and_use_for_hydraulic_fracturing_in_the_marcellus_shale_region.pdf |title=Water Resources and Use for Hydraulic Fracturing in the Marcellus Shale Region |first1=J. Daniel |last1= Arthur |first2= Mike|last2= Uretsky |first3= Preston |last3= Wilson |publisher=ALL Consulting |accessdate=9 May 2012 | format = PDF | page= 3 | conference = Meeting of the American Institute of Professional Geologists | location = Pittsburgh | date= 5–6 May 2010}}
  • {{cite journal|last=Colborn |first=Theo |last2=Kwiatkowski |first2=Carol |last3=Schultz |first3=Kim |last4=Bachran |first4=Mary |year=2011 |title=Natural Gas Operations from a Public Health Perspective |journal=Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=1039–1056 |url=http://www.pasdegazdeschistes.rd-h.fr/wp-content/uploads/NaturalGasManuscriptPDF09_13_10-Th%C3%A9o-Colborn.pdf |doi=10.1080/10807039.2011.605662 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426012426/http://www.pasdegazdeschistes.rd-h.fr/wp-content/uploads/NaturalGasManuscriptPDF09_13_10-Th%C3%A9o-Colborn.pdf |archivedate=26 April 2012 |df=dmy-all }}
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  • Gallegos, T.J. and B.A. Varela (2015). [https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo54673 Hydraulic Fracturing Distributions and Treatment Fluids, Additives, Proppants, and Water Volumes Applied to Wells Drilled in the United States from 1947 through 2010]. U.S. Geological Survey.
{{refend}}{{commons category}}{{wikinews|Disposal of fracking wastewater poses potential environmental problems}}{{wiktionary}}{{Shale gas|technology=yes}}{{Petroleum industry}}{{Portal bar|Earth sciences|Mining|Energy|Environment}}{{Authority control}}

4 : 1947 introductions|Human activities with impact on the environment|Hydraulic fracturing|Unconventional oil
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