“Hydraulic fracturing by country”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Hydraulic fracturing has become a contentious environmental and health issue with Tunisia and France banning the practice and a de facto moratorium in place in Quebec (Canada), and some of the states of the US.

Australia

Up until the mid-2000s, hydraulic fracturing was generally limited to conventional oil and gas wells in the Cooper Basin. This was limited to one, two or sometimes zero ongoing fracturing operations.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} The vast majority of coal seam gas wells have not been hydraulically fractured as the wells presently being drilled are in coal seams that have good natural permeability.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} The NSW Government has banned BTEX chemicals as additives.^[1] As of September 2016, Victoria has permanently banned hydraulic fracturing and all forms of unconventional gas extraction.^[2]

Bulgaria

A number of protests occurred in Bulgaria after the government's decision to grant an approval for Chevron Corporation to research the possibilities of shale gas extraction in the country's northeast in 2011. After a nationwide protest in January 2012, the government decided to ban the hydraulic fracturing technology.^[3]^[4]

Canada

Fracking has been in common use by the petroleum industry in Canada since at least the mid-1960s.^[5] Massive hydraulic fracturing has been widely used in Alberta since the late 1970s to recover gas from low-permeability sandstones of the Spirit River Formation.^[6] The method is currently used in development of the Cardium, Duvernay, Montney and Viking in Alberta, Bakken in Saskatchewan, Montney and Horn River in British Columbia.

Concerns about fracking began in late July 2011, when the Government of British Columbia gave Talisman Energy a long-term water licence to draw water from the BC Hydro-owned Williston Lake reservoir, for a twenty-year term. Fracking has also received criticism in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and the Nova Scotia government is currently reviewing the practice, with recommendations expected in March 2012. The practice has been temporarily suspended in parts of Quebec, pending an environmental review. The Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives has also expressed concern.^[7]

During October 2013 public conflict began between the Elsipogtog First Nation in New Brunswick and the hydraulic fracturing company SWN. Fuelling the conflict were SWN's plans to use the land of the Elsipogtog Nation for fracking. The First Nations people of the area had previously raised concerns about the environmental impacts of fracking as well as the government's failure to consult with them.^[8] Public protests began when the First Nations people realized their voice was not being heard. Much of the media coverage on the protests has portrayed the First Nations people as violent and destructive. However, what most people do not know is that the land in question is legally First Nation land. The Peace and Friendship Treaties of 1760–1761 did not cede land or resources,^[9]{{unreliable source?|date = March 2014}} the government of Canada does not own the land and therefore cannot legally permit SWN to use the land for fracking purposes.{{citation needed|date = March 2014}} On 6 December, SWN announced it was stopping fracking for the year, leaving the job incomplete.^[9]

Four out of Canada's 10 provinces currently have province-wide bans on fracking: the provinces of New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and Quebec.^[10]

China

China completed its first horizontal shale gas well in 2011 and 200 by 2014.^[11] A global shale gas study by the US Energy Information Administration said China's technically recoverable shale gas reserves were almost 50% higher than those of the number two nation, the United States.^[12] Regulation of the sector in the country, however, could change its characteristics in the future.^[13]

Denmark

In 2012, the first research for shale gas has begun in Denmark, where Total E&P Denmark B.V., a subsidiary of Total S.A., has been granted two exploration licenses^[14] in collaboration with the Danish State's oil- and gas company, Nordsøfonden.^[15] The exploration license, which runs until 2016, covers the two areas Nordjylland and Nordsjælland, where the geological characteristics are expected to provide the best potential for shale gas.^[16]

Danish national media have so far covered both pros and cons of shale gas production and fracking,^[17]^[18] and a minor NGO has been formed to protest against shale gas.^[19] The acknowledged green think tank Concito has produced a report that states, that it will be both practically and technically feasible to establish shale gas production in Denmark without having to fear of contamination of drinking water or the release of methane from wells.^[20]

France

Hydraulic fracturing was banned in France in 2011 after public pressure.^[4]^[21]^[22]^[23] It was based on the precautionary principle as well as the principal of preventive and corrective action of environmental hazards, using the best available techniques with an acceptable economic cost to insure the protection, the valuation, the restoration, management of spaces, resources and natural environments, of animal and vegetal species, of ecological diversity and equilibriums.^[24] The ban was upheld by an October 2013 ruling of the Constitutional Council following complaints by US-based company Schuepbach Energy.^[25]

What is more, in December 2017, to fight against global warming, France adopted a law banning new fossil fuel exploitation projects and closing current ones by 2040 in all of its territories. France thus became the first country to programme the end of all fossil fuel exploitation.^[26]^[27]

Germany

Massive hydraulic fracturing of gas wells in tight sandstone began in Germany in 1975, and became common during the period 1978–1985, when more wells received massive hydraulic fracs in Germany than in any other European country. Germany also had the largest hydraulic fracturing jobs in Europe, using up to 650 tonnes of proppant per well. Most German fracs used water- or oil-based gels.^[28] The most popular target formation for hydraulic fracturing was the Rotliegend Sandstone. Hydraulically fractured wells are today the source of most of German natural gas production.^[29]

In February 2013, the government of Chancellor Angela Merkel announced draft regulations that would allow for the exploitation of shale gas deposits using the same fracking techniques common in the U.S., with the exception only of wetland areas that make up just over 10% of German territory. The draft legislation had come from the Federal Department of Economics, then headed by the party head of Merkel's coalition partner, the pro-business free Democrats.^[30] This policy was said to be motivated by fears that consistently high energy costs were harming German industry, facing competitors for example from the U.S. where energy prices had shrunk to less than 25% of German energy costs.^[31]

However these plans immediately drew massive critique both from opposition parties and elements of Merkel's own CDU, as well as from major NGOs, large parts of the press and the general public. Within less than a month, the original plan was put on ice for the foreseeable future and a moratorium was declared. Ever since shale gas fracking has de facto been banned in Germany and the stance of the newly formed Grand Coalition government expressed in the coalition treaty is that unconventional gas exploration will not be pursued in the country under this government. Here is an excerpt from the coalition contract:^[32]

Although German laws de jure explicitly prohibit only the use of hydraulic fracturing in designated water preserves, fracking operations generally need be authorized by the government, which has publicly declared a moratorium until long-term damage to residents or the environment brought about by fracking can be ruled out or until alternative extraction methods become available that don't rely on the injection of toxic chemical additives in the fluid system.

In June 2016 German politicians passed a law banning fracking, with limited exceptions for scientific and non-commercial projects. Wintershall and ExxonMobil will now have to abandon their plans to frack in Germany.^[33]

Ireland

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, over 200 wells have so far been hydraulically fractured. Between 2007 and 2011, 22 wells (9 onshore and 13 offshore) were hydraulically fractured.^[35]^[36]

A temporary moratorium on fracking for shale gas was enacted in September 2013 pending further research.^[37]

New Zealand

In New Zealand, hydraulic fracturing is part of petroleum exploration and extraction on a small scale mainly in Taranaki and concerns have been raised by environmentalists.^[38]^[39]

Poland

Poland is aggressively developing its shale gas reserves, thought to be the largest in Europe, though the latest estimate is significantly lower than that previously provided by the U.S. Department of Energy.^[40]^[41] A Polish Geological Institute study published in March 2012 concluded that, while fracking at one site had produced toxic waste, the latter was reused and did not harm the environment,^[42] though critics said the study was carried out at the start of exploration in Poland and does not reflect dangers from a long-term activity.^[43] Large-scale fracking in Poland would relieve some of the EU's dependency on Russian gas,^[44]^[45] but the East European state is densely populated and has a large agricultural sector, meaning the massive amounts of water required for fracking have raised additional concerns.^[46]

Romania

On 17 October 2013, people in the Pungesti village protested against hydraulic fracturing done by Chevron. Two hundred gendarmes were sent to stop the protest.^[47] The land on which Chevron is trying to build the well belonged to the village council but was acquired by the mayor in a way contested by the villagers. The mayor is presumed to have been paid by Chevron in order to permit the building of a gas-well, and a referendum was held to force the mayor to resign.^[48]^[49]

On 6 and 7 December 2013, protesters tried to stop MIF S.A., a contractor for Chevron, from starting the work at this site and the government brought three hundred gendarmes^[50] to keep the protesters away.

Protesters clashed with the gendarmes and there were about 50 arrests made. Many protesters claimed they were abused and injured by the government forces.

The county police chief instituted a state of necessity barring citizens to travel in or out of that area, imposed a curfew and interdicted any public assembly.^[51]

In February 2015 Chevron gave up on its fracking activities in Romania, with the company no longer pursuing shale gas exploration in Europe.^[52]^[53]^[54]

South Africa

Currently around 77% of South Africa's energy generation comes from coal.^[55] By the time the last two coal-fired plants come on line, including the world's 4th largest coal-fired power plant, it is estimated that South Africa will be generating 94% of its domestic energy from coal.^[56] The South African government is currently (2014) strongly campaigning for fracking to be rolled-out across much of the country to act as a "bridge-fuel" between coal and alternative fuels.^[57] However, recent studies show that the loss of methane to the environment during production, transportation, and power generation is considerable, potentially negating benefits.^[58] This means that a move to natural gas may have greater greenhouse gas effects than continuing with coal power in the short- and medium-term.^[59]

Three companies have received permits to frack roughly 1/5th of the area of South Africa.^[60] Shell's portion covers roughly 90,000 km², Falcon's covers 32,000 km², and Challenger Energy's (Bundu) covers 3,200 km². Due to considerable public pressure, a temporary moratorium on hydraulic fracturing for shale gas in South Africa's Karoo region was imposed in July 2011, to examine concerns about safety and environmental degradation, particularly that of water safety.^[46]^[61] Following the announcement of the moratorium in April 2011, a task team appointed by Mineral Resources minister Susan Shabangu was appointed to investigate the feasibility and environmental impact on fracking. The moratorium was lifted on 7 September 2012, with the team's report not having been made public, and the task team having "met in total secrecy".^[62]

Rationale for lifting the moratorium

The government's rationale for lifting the moratorium included the creation of up to 700 000 jobs, an injection into the economy of up to 200 billion rands ($19.56 billion) a year, and the reduction of reliance on coal energy.^[63] With an estimated 13.7 trillion cubic meters of recoverable gas, one study claims that the Karoo could hold enough gas to supply South Africa for 400 years.^[64] Despite these benefits, activists vehemently opposed the move by the government and the ruling party, the ANC, and made a series of well-publicised protests at the end of September 2012.^[65] Companies are allowed to proceed with the initial stages of exploration, including geological field mapping and other data gathering activities, until such time as an appropriate regulatory framework has been put in place. Actual fracking activities, essential during the later stages of exploration when determining the financial viability of a potential project, would for the time being remain prohibited until a legal framework has been completed. Initial exploration would go a long way towards confirming whether the Karoo indeed held the estimated technically recoverable resource of 485 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of gas.^[66]

Opposition to fracking

However, local South African campaigners argue that exploration represents the thin-edge of the corporate wedge, and should not go ahead because of concerns about air pollution, groundwater contamination, and health risks associated with fluid additives used for fracturing.^[67] Environmental campaigners point out that many of the jobs will go to foreign expertise, little of the money will end up in local hands, and that the natural gas which is made producible by fracturing is not a "bridge" fuel because it produces as much in greenhouse emissions as coal.^[68] The karoo, famous for the quality of its lamb, is an arid region that it is largely reliant on underground water for agriculture and drinking supplies.

Organisations in South Africa that oppose fracking include Earthlife Africa^[69] Greenpeace, CASABIO, The Home of Biodiversity,^[70] The Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA),^[71]/ a Facebook group "Stop Fracking",^[72] and Treasure the Karoo Action Group (TKAG).^[73] Jonathan Deal, CEO of TKAG has also helped form the Sustainable Alternatives to Fracking and Exploration (SAFE) Alliance.^[74] This alliance includes The Wilderness Foundation,^[75] TKAG, the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT),^[76] and the African Conservation Trust (ACT).^[77]

Notable meetings

In August 2011, a public forum was held at Kelvin Grove in Cape Town by Shell's environmental consultant, Golder Associates. Lewis Pugh delivered a speech^[78] which received a standing ovation from the attending public. He stated that: Never, ever did I think that there would be a debate in this arid country about which was more important – gas or water. We can survive without gas... We cannot live without water. If we damage our limited water supply – and fracking will do just that – we will have conflict again here in South Africa. His final statement was: I have no doubt, that in the end, good will triumph over evil. After Pugh's speech, Bonang Mohale, Shell's representative, announced in reference to fracking that: We will leave the Karoo better than it was when we found it, and: There is zero chance that there will be any contamination of the water. Mohale was effectively silenced by his colleagues after ongoing derision at his statements from the public {{Citation needed|date=July 2018}}. Shell was also asked what would happen to the gas. A Shell representative replied that: Shell doesn't expect the gas reserves to be very large, therefore they will be generating electricity and distributing it directly.^[79] Shell also agreed to disclose the chemicals they would use in fracking, their water sources and waste disposal methodology. As of 2018, Shell's three exploration licence applications in Karoo have not been granted.

Water boreholes

Hydraulic fracturing has regularly been used to improve the performance of water boreholes. In the case of water boreholes it is often referred to as hydrofracturing. From 1990 to 1992, 170 boreholes had been hydrofractured in South Africa.^[80]

Tunisia

Members of the Constituent Assembly belonging to president Moncef Marzouki's party, the Congress For the Republic, have sponsored a bill for the moratorium of hydraulic fracturing on 6 February 2014.^[81]

Ukraine

Ukraine has a long history of hydraulic fracturing, since it has been used there since the 1950s.^[82] There has also been a strong recent interest of the hydraulic fracturing industry in Ukraine.^[83] According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, Ukraine has third-largest shale gas reserves in Europe at 128 trillion cubic feet.^[84] Since 2011, approximately 22 domestic and foreign-owned companies have been engaged in hydraulic fracturing in Ukraine.^[85]

But this growing industry presence is hampered by major obstacles. At least two companies have backed out of a deal to extract shale gas in Eastern Ukraine due to the threat of military action in that area.^[86] There are also other challenges to hydraulic fracturing in Ukraine, such as a lack of a proper regulatory framework for its development, opposition of major EU partners to hydraulic fracturing which may seek to influence Ukraine (France for example has an outright ban).

Constitutionally, Ukraine's natural resources belong to the people, with government acting as a trustee. Under Ukraine's constitution, a private investor would need to execute a production-sharing agreement, but would not be entitled to 100% of its production as it has to be shared with the state. The level of potential public opposition to hydraulic fracturing also creates uncertainty. Ukraine's shale gas reserves are deeper than those in the United States, and thus production is bound to be more expensive, which may make it cost-prohibitive, depending on the prevailing market prices for gas. Ukraine continues to vigorously pursue reforms designed to achieve energy independence, which portends well for hydraulic fracturing as a helpful option in that regard.^[83]

United Kingdom

Although hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom has been common in North Sea oil and gas fields since the late 1970s,^[87] and has been used in about 200 British onshore oil and gas wells since the early 1980s, the technique did not attract public attention until its use was proposed for onshore shale gas wells in 2007.^[88] As of Jan 2014, the only hydraulic fracturing job that has been performed for shale gas in the United Kingdom was by Cuadrilla Resources in 2011. Other companies have exploration licenses. The process was unofficially suspended for nearly a year in the UK from June 2011 after safety concerns emerged from the occurrence of two small earthquakes, but an expert report in April 2012 concluded the practice could continue under stricter monitoring.^[89]

The Royal Academy of Engineering under the banner of the Royal Society published a report in June 2012^[90] that covered all aspects of the technology, and this has informed extensive legislation with the many government licensing authorities, including the requirement that only non hazardous chemicals^[91] may be used.. (See Hydraulic Fracturing in the UK for complete details).

Protest groups have emerged since April 2012, with a major nationwide group being Frack Off with further local groups.^[92] As of 2013 the government was optimistic about development of the shale gas industry and was offering favorable tax treatment at a time when local budgets are being slashed.^[93]

However, elsewhere in the UK, a moratorium has been imposed by the Scottish Government to prevent fracking in Scotland with promises it will not be lifted until there is proof beyond doubt that it can be done safely – although there is some concern from the public about whether this promise will be kept. In February 2015, the UK government agreed not to issue any more licences for fracking in Scotland with the powers being devolved to the Scottish Government on recommendation from the Smith commission. Ineos have most of the central belt area licensed currently.

In March 2019, the High Court found the UK government's policy was unlawful and failed to consider the climate impact of shale gas extraction.^[94]

United States

A type of the fracking technique called slickwater fracking was used in Texas in 1998 to complete natural gas wells in the Barnett Shale.^[95] This type of completion was made possible by a number of advances in directional drilling and microseismic 3-dimensional imaging supported by the Department of Energy and other federal agencies,^[96] Drilling into shale now accounts for 30 percent of US gas production.^[97]

This method of well completion has become controversial in high-activity states like Texas, Pennsylvania, Arkansas, West Virginia, Oklahoma, and Ohio, because of the complaints about pollution, health effects and Earthquakes.^[98]

Hydraulic fracturing was exempted from underground injection controls of the Safe Drinking Water Act.^[99]

In May 2012, the state of Vermont became the first state to outlaw hydraulic fracturing^[100] and New York state, which unlike Vermont has significant gas reserves, banned the practice in December 2014.^[101] Maryland has also banned fracking for two and a half years, with a promise of new regulations after the ban lifts.^[102]

See also

Notes and references

1. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.trade.nsw.gov.au/policy/TI-O-120|title=Ban on use of BTEX compounds in CSG activities|work=NSW Trade & Investment}}
2. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-30/victoria-to-ban-csg-fracking-and-unconventional-gas-exploration/7796944|title=Victoria moves to ban coal seam gas, fracking|date=30 August 2016|website=Abc.net.au}}
3. ^ {{dead link|date=March 2019}}
4. ^¹{{cite web|title=9 countries or regions that ban fracking|url=http://oilpatchasia.com/2013/10/9-countries-or-regions-that-ban-fracking/|publisher=Oil Patch Asia|accessdate=7 January 2014}}
5. ^J.E.S. Milne and R.D. Howie, "Developments in eastern Canada in 1965," Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Jun. 1966, v.50 n.6 p.1298.
6. ^Douglas J. Cant and Valerie G. Ethier, "Lithology-dependent diagenetic control of reservoir properties of conglomerates, Falher member, Elmworth Field, Alberta," Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Aug. 1984, v.68 n.8 p.1044.
7. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2011/07/29/bc-talisman-fracking.html|title=Northern B.C. fracking licence concerns critics |date=29 July 2011 |publisher=CBC.ca |accessdate=30 July 2011}}
8. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/n-b-fracking-protests-and-the-fight-for-aboriginal-rights-1.2126515|title=N.B. fracking protests and the fight for aboriginal rights|date=13 April 2014|website=Cbc.ca}}
9. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.ammsa.com/content/elsipogtog-and-fracking-protests|title=Elsipogtog and Fracking protests|website=Ammsa.com}}
10. ^{{cite web|url=https://keeptapwatersafe.org/global-bans-on-fracking/|title=List of Bans Worldwide|date=14 September 2012|website=Keeptapwatersafe.org}}
11. ^{{cite news|last1=Lee|first1=Jaeah|last2=West|first2=James|title=The Great Frack Forward|url=https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2014/09/china-us-fracking-shale-gas|accessdate=31 January 2017|work=Mother Jones|date=2014}}
12. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/apr/21/china-shale-gas-well |title=China takes step towards tapping shale gas potential with first well |author=Jonathan Watts |date=21 April 2011 |website=Guardian.co.uk |accessdate=27 February 2012 |location=London}}
13. ^{{cite journal|last1=Farah|first1=Paolo Davide|last2=Tremolada|first2=Riccardo|title=Regulation and Prospects of the Shale Gas Market in China in Light of International Trade, Energy Law, Production-Sharing Agreements, Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development: A Comparison with the US Experience|date=2015|ssrn=2666216|accessdate=}}
14. ^{{cite web|url=http://en.skifergas.dk/shale-gas-in-denmark.aspx|title=Does shale gas exist in Denmark? – Total E&P Denmark B.V.|author=lulucuma|website=Skifergas.dk|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20131031213619/http://en.skifergas.dk/shale-gas-in-denmark.aspx|archivedate=31 October 2013|df=dmy-all}}
15. ^{{cite web |url=http://en.skifergas.dk/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-10-04 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20131003094011/http://en.skifergas.dk/ |archivedate=3 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }} Shale gas in Denmark
16. ^{{cite web|url=http://en.skifergas.dk/shale-gas-in-denmark/why-nordjylland-and-nordsjaelland.aspx|title=Alum shale may contain natural gas – Total E&P Denmark B.V.|author=lulucuma|website=Skifergas.dk|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20131003100609/http://en.skifergas.dk/shale-gas-in-denmark/why-nordjylland-and-nordsjaelland.aspx|archivedate=3 October 2013|df=dmy-all}}
17. ^{{cite news|url=http://politiken.dk/indland/ECE1344114/danmark-satser-paa-kontroversiel-gas/|title=Denmark goes for controversial gas |date=23 July 2011 |website=Politiken.dk |accessdate=30 July 2011}}
18. ^{{cite web|url=https://energiwatch.dk/secure/Energinyt/Olie___Gas/article5837067.ece|title=Skal vi afvise 250 års gasforsyning?|website=EnergiWatch|accessdate=6 March 2019}}
19. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.skifergasnejtak.dk|title=Skifergas – Nej Tak!|website=Skifergasnejtak.dk}}
20. ^{{cite web|url=https://ing.dk/artikel/concito-danmark-kan-sagtens-haandtere-skifergas-forsvarligt-136102|title=Concito: Danmark kan sagtens håndtere skifergas forsvarligt|date=4 February 2013|website=Ing.dk|accessdate=6 March 2019}}
21. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000024361355&dateTexte=&categorieLien=id|title=LOI n° 2011-835 du 13 juillet 2011 visant à interdire l'exploration et l'exploitation des mines d'hydrocarbures liquides ou gazeux par fracturation hydraulique et à abroger les permis exclusifs de recherches comportant des projets ayant recours à cette technique – Legifrance|website=Legifrance.gouv.fr}}
22. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/11_15/b4223060759263.htm |title=The French Public Says No to {{'}}Le Fracking{{'}} |author=Tara Patel |date=31 March 2011 |newspaper=Businessweek |accessdate=22 February 2012}}
23. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-10-04/france-to-keep-fracking-ban-to-protect-environment-sarkozy-says.html |title=France to Keep Fracking Ban to Protect Environment, Sarkozy Says |author=Tara Patel |date=4 October 2011 |newspaper=Businessweek |accessdate=22 February 2012}}
24. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000022494168&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006074220|title=Code de l'environnement – Article L110-1 – Legifrance|website=Legifrance.gouv.fr}}
25. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24489986 |title=Fracking ban upheld by French court |author= |date=11 October 2013 |newspaper=BBC |accessdate=16 October 2013}}
26. ^Agence France-Presse, [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/20/france-bans-fracking-and-oil-extraction-in-all-of-its-territories "France bans fracking and oil extraction in all of its territories "], The Guardian, 20 December 2017 (page visited on 30 December 2017).
27. ^{{fr}} "La France devient le premier pays à programmer la fin des hydrocarbures", Radio télévision suisse, 30 December 2017 (page visited on 30 December 2017).
28. ^D. Maher, Hydraulic Proppant Fracturing and Gravel Packing, Elsevier, 1989, p.176, 178.
29. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/app/Preview.do?paperNumber=SPE-94250-MS&societyCode=SPE|title=Productivity of Frac Stimulations in the German Rotliegend: Theoretical Considerations and Practical Results|author=OnePetro|website=Onepetro.org}}
30. ^{{cite news | url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-02-26/germany-agrees-on-regulation-to-permit-fracking-for-shale-gas.html |title= Germany agrees on regulations to allow fracking for shale gas |first1= Stefan |last1= Nicola | first2 = Tino | last2 = Andersen |date= 26 February 2013 |agency=Bloomberg |accessdate= 1 May 2014}}
31. ^{{cite news|url=https://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-04-24/world/38773548_1_gas-production-greenhouse-gas-russian-gas|title=Promises of shale gas throw 'unexpected wrench' in Germany's green energy policy|author=Michael Birnbaum|newspaper=Washington Post}}
32. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/koalitionsvertrag136.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-01-02 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228111445/http://www.tagesschau.de/inland/koalitionsvertrag136.pdf |archivedate=28 December 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
33. ^{{cite news | author = Agence France-Presse (AFP) | author-link = Agence France-Presse | title = German government agrees to ban fracking after years of dispute | date = 24 July 2016 | work = The Guardian | location = London, UK | issn = 0261-3077 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jun/24/germany-bans-fracking-after-years-of-dispute | access-date = 2016-10-05}}
34. ^{{cite magazine |magazine=Shale Gas Bulletin Ireland |url=https://sites.google.com/site/shalegasbulletinireland/all-previous-issues/issue-no-108---july-15-2017#President_Higgins_signs_Irish_fracking_ban_into_law |title=President Higgins signs Irish fracking ban into law}}
35. ^{{cite web|title=FOCUS ON DUTCH GAS 2012|url=https://www.ebn.nl/ebn-publicaties/focus-on-dutch-oil-gas/|format=PDF|website=Ebn.nl|accessdate=26 November 2012}}
36. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.energy-pedia.com/news/netherlands/northern-petroleum-geesbrug-well-fracturing-programme-is-exceeding-expectations|title=Northern Petroleum Geesbrug well fracturing programme is exceeding expectations|website=Energy-pedia.com|accessdate=26 November 2012}}
37. ^{{cite web|last1=Bertini|first1=Ilarioa|title=The Netherlands puts temporary ban on fracking ahead of further research|url=http://blueandgreentomorrow.com/2013/09/20/the-netherlands-puts-temporary-ban-on-fracking-ahead-of-further-research/|website=Blue and Green Tomorrow|accessdate=22 October 2014}}
38. ^{{cite news| last = Maetzig| first = Rob| title = Anti-frackers 'need to get real'| newspaper = Taranaki Daily News| accessdate = 27 July 2011| date = 27 July 2011| url = http://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki-daily-news/news/5344522/Anti-frackers-need-to-get-real}}
39. ^{{cite news |url= http://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki-daily-news/news/5379486/Concern-as-gas-drilling-intensifies |title=Concern as gas drilling intensifies |first=Rob |last=Maetzig |newspaper=Taranaki Daily News|date= 3 August 2011|accessdate=14 August 2011}}
40. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/business/industries/naturalresources/article3033728.ece |title=Shale gas extraction given clean bill of health by MPs |author=Tim Webb |date=24 May 2011 |newspaper=The Sunday Times |accessdate=4 March 2012}}
41. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-02/poland-says-22-shale-gas-wells-underway-planned-for-this-year.html |title=Poland Says 22 Shale Gas Wells Under Way or Planned in 2012 |author=Marek Strzelecki |date=2 March 2012 |agency=Bloomberg |accessdate=4 March 2012}}
42. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/polish-report-shale-gas-procedure-produces-toxic-refuse-but-does-not-harm-environment/2012/03/02/gIQAvwSamR_story.html |title=Polish report: shale gas procedure produces toxic refuse but does not harm environment |date=2 March 2012 |agency=Associated Press |website=WashingtonPost.com |accessdate=4 March 2012 }} {{Dead link|date=September 2013|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}
43. ^{{cite news |url=http://abcnews.go.com/Business/wireStory/polish-report-shale-gas-extraction-harmful-15832525 |title=Polish Report: Shale Gas Extraction Not Harmful |author=Monika Scislowska |date=2 March 2012|website=ABC.com |accessdate=4 March 2012}}
44. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/09/us-poland-shalegas-idUSTRE8180PM20120209 |title=Insight: Poland's shale gas play takes on Russian power |author1=Michael Kahn |author2=Braden Reddall |author3=Gabriela Baczynska |date=9 February 2012 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=4 March 2012}}
45. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/analysis-and-features/polands-shale-gas-dilemma-for-europe-2361570.html |title=Poland's Shale Gas dilemma for Europe |author=Mary Dejevksy |date=27 September 2011 |newspaper=The Independent |accessdate=4 March 2012 |location=London}}
46. ^¹{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/31/world/south-african-farmers-see-threat-from-fracking.html |title=Hunt for Gas Hits Fragile Soil, and South Africans Fear Risks |author=Ian Urbina |date=30 December 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times |accessdate=23 February 2012 |quote=Covering much of the roughly 800 miles between Johannesburg and Cape Town, this arid expanse—its name [Karoo] means "thirsty land"—sees less rain in some parts than the Mojave Desert.}}
47. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.mediafax.ro/social/explorarea-gazelor-de-sist-de-catre-chevron-blocata-de-protestele-satenilor-din-vaslui-jandarmii-au-intervenit-11523167|title=Explorarea gazelor de şist de către Chevron, blocată de protestele sătenilor din Vaslui. Jandarmii au intervenit|website=Mediafax.ro|access-date=2017-05-15|language=en}}
48. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-16604894-cererea-organizare-unui-referendum-demitere-primarului-din-pungesti-respinsa-prefectura.htm|title=Cererea de organizare a unui referendum de demitere a primarului din Pungesti, respinsa de Prefectura|website=HotNews.ro|access-date=2017-05-15|language=ro}}
49. ^{{Cite web|url=https://frackoffromania.wordpress.com/2014/02/13/the-referendum-against-the-mayor-of-pungesti-blocked-by-the-county-goverment-in-vaslui/ |title=The referendum against the mayor of Pungesti, blocked by the county government in Vaslui « Frack Off Romania |date=2015-02-09 |access-date=2017-05-15 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209084545/https://frackoffromania.wordpress.com/2014/02/13/the-referendum-against-the-mayor-of-pungesti-blocked-by-the-county-goverment-in-vaslui/ |archivedate=9 February 2015 |df= }}
50. ^{{Cite web|url=http://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/romanian-citizens-pungesti-backed-greenpeace-force-chevron-stop-fracking-operations-2014|title=Romanian citizens of Pungesti backed by Greenpeace force Chevron to stop fracking operations, 2014 {{!}} Global Nonviolent Action Database|website=Nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-05-15}}
51. ^{{cite web|title=9 countries or regions that ban fracking|url=http://oilpatchasia.com/2013/10/9-countries-or-regions-that-ban-fracking/|publisher=Oil Patch Asia|accessdate=2 January 2014}}
52. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.ogfj.com/articles/2015/02/chevron-exits-shale-gas-exploration-in-romania.html|title=Chevron exits shale gas exploration in Romania|website=Ogfj.com|access-date=2017-05-15}}
53. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.breakbulk.com/chevron-exits-romanian-shale-gas/|title=Chevron Exits Romanian Shale Gas – Breakbulk Events & Media|date=2015-02-23|work=Breakbulk Events & Media|access-date=2017-05-15|language=en-US}}
54. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-02-20/chevron-dry-holes-rate-almost-doubles-amid-shift-to-americas|title=Chevron Dry Holes Rate Almost Doubles Amid Shift to Americas|date=2015-02-20|website=Bloomberg.com|access-date=2017-05-15}}
55. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.dme.gov.za/energy/coal.stm |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-01-14 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091202053007/http://www.dme.gov.za/energy/coal.stm |archivedate=2 December 2009 |df=dmy-all }}
56. ^Fossil-fuel phase-out#cite note-34
57. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.health24.com/Lifestyle/Environmental-health/News/SA-to-move-ahead-with-shale-gas-exploration-20140205|title=SA to move ahead with shale gas exploration|website=Health24.com}}
58. ^{{cite web|url=http://co2scorecard.org/home/researchitem/28|title=CO2 Scorecard – Shale Gas: Killing Coal without Cutting CO2|website=Co2scorecard.org}}
59. ^{{cite web|url=http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/02/19/3296831/natural-gas-climate-benefit/|title=By The Time Natural Gas Has A Net Climate Benefit You'll Likely Be Dead And The Climate Ruined – ThinkProgress|website=ThinkProgress.org}}
60. ^{{cite web|url=http://karoospace.co.za/lowdown-on-fracking-in-the-karoo/ |title=Lowdown on Fracking in the Karoo |accessdate=11 February 2014}}
61. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/21/us-safrica-fracking-idUSTRE73K45620110421 |title=S.Africa imposes "fracking" moratorium in Karoo |website=Reuters.com |date=21 April 2011 }}
62. ^{{cite news|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201209180701.html | title=South Africa: International Groups Rally Against Fracking, TKAG Claims | first = Francis | last = Hweshe | newspaper = West Cape News | date=17 September 2012 | accessdate=11 February 2014}}
63. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.iol.co.za/business/companies/sa-proposes-rules-for-fracking-1.1590257 | title = SA proposes rules for fracking | publisher = IOL Business Report | publication-place = South Africa | date = 10 October 2013}}
64. ^{{Citation| url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19517046| title = South Africa ends fracking freeze| publisher = BBC News| location = United Kingdom| accessdate = 7 September 2012| date=7 September 2012}}
65. ^{{Citation| url = http://allafrica.com/view/group/main/main/id/00019581.html| title = South Africa: Man Reaches Exalted Grandmaster Status| year = 2012| publisher = AllAfrica.com| location = Africa| accessdate = 26 September 2012}}
66. ^{{cite web|last=Janse van Vuuren|first=André|title=SA gives cautious 'yes' to shale gas|url=http://www.miningmx.com/page/news/energy/1391534-SA-gives-cautious-yes-to-shale-gas#.ULO40SA7uSo|website=Miningmx.com|accessdate=26 November 2012}}
67. ^{{cite web|title=View of Fracking in Cape Town | url=http://thenakedbloganist.blogspot.com/2014/02/minister-of-mineral-resounces-announces.html | accessdate=11 February 2014}}
68. ^{{cite web|title= Anthropogenic Emissions of Methane in the United States| url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/11/20/1314392110.abstract | date=25 November 2013 }}
69. ^{{cite web|url=http://earthlife.org.za/|title=Earth Life – Earth Life|website=Earthlife.org.za|accessdate=6 March 2019}}
70. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.casabio.org|title=CASABIO – Home|author=|website=Casabio.org}}
71. ^{{cite web|url=http://wessa.org.za|title=WESSA – Welcome|website=Wessa.org.za}}
72. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/stopfracking|title=Stop Fracking – Save the Karoo|website=Facebook.com}}
73. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.treasurethekaroo.co.za/|title=Treasure Karoo Action Group - Home|website=Treasurethekaroo.co.za}}
74. ^{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222001024/http://www.wildernessfoundation.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=127:influential-ngos-unite-to-fight-fracking&catid=2:news&Itemid=18|title=Wilderness Foundation South Africa - Influential NGOs unite to fight Fracking|date=22 February 2014|website=Web.archive.org|accessdate=6 March 2019}}
75. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.wildernessfoundation.co.za/|title=Wilderness Foundation South Africa|website=Wildernessfoundation.co.za}}
76. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.ewt.org.za/|title=Endangered Wildlife Trust|website=Ewt.org.za}}
77. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.projectafrica.com/|title=African Conservation Trust|website=Projectafrica.com}}
78. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.iol.co.za/no-fracking-way-we-won-t-go-1.1050041|title=No fracking way, we won't go|author=Independent Newspapers Online|work=Independent Online}}
79. ^{{cite web |title=Debate Heats Up Over Shell Fracking |url=http://havemanninc.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Bulletin.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222143434/http://havemanninc.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Bulletin.pdf |archivedate=22 February 2014 |df=dmy-all }}
80. ^{{cite journal|title=Hydrofracture: State Of The Art In South Africa|journal=Hydrogeology Journal|volume=2|issue=2|pages=59–63|doi=10.1007/s100400050050|year=1994|last1=Less|first1=C.|last2=Andersen|first2=N.}}
81. ^{{cite web|title=Bill for a moratorium of hydraulic fracturing in Tunisia|url=https://www.facebook.com/MabroukaMbarek/posts/701532579889736:0|website=Facebook.com}}
82. ^{{cite web|url=http://shalegas.in.ua/en/istoriya-hidrorozryvu-v-ukrajini/|title=History of hydrofracking in Ukraine - Unconventional Gas in Ukraine|website=Shalegas.in.ua}}
83. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.americanbar.org/publications/trends/2015-2016/september-october-2015/ukraines_energy_crisis_may_invite_hydraulic_fracturing_and_regulatory_uncertainty.html|title=Ukraine's energy crisis may invite hydraulic fracturing and regulatory uncertainty|website=Americanbar.org}}
84. ^ {{dead link|date=March 2019}}
85. ^{{cite web|url=http://en.necu.org.ua/files/2015/03/Slanec_EN_small_prev2.pdf|title=National Ecological Centre of Ukraine. The dash for gas in Ukraine: Current trends in the production of unconventional reserves|website=En.necu.org.ua|accessdate=6 March 2019}}
86. ^{{cite web|url=https://longtailpipe.com/2015/06/11/6415/|title=Shell, Chevron, pull out of fracking deals in Ukraine citing the war with Separatists and Russia|date=11 June 2015|website=Longtailpipe.com}}
87. ^{{cite book|first=Detlef |last=Mader|year= 1989|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyGcOI42oBMC&pg=PA174 |title=Hydraulic Proppant Fracturing and Gravel Packing|publisher= Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-086884-4|page=174}}
88. ^{{citation |url=http://www.og.decc.gov.uk/UKpromote/onshore_paper/UK_onshore_shalegas.pdf |title=The Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources of Britain's Onshore Basins – Shale Gas |author=British Geological Survey |year=2010 |publisher=Department of Energy & Climate Change |accessdate=17 April 2013}}
89. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/apr/17/gas-fracking-gets-green-light |title= Gas 'fracking' gets green light |author= Fiona Harvey |date= 17 April 2012 |newspaper= The Guardian |accessdate= 17 April 2012 |location=London}}
90. ^{{cite web|url=http://royalsociety.org/policy/projects/shale-gas-extraction/report/|title=Shale gas extraction: Final report – Royal Society|website=Royalsociety.org}}
91. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/business/topics/126689.aspx |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-03-12 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228065441/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/business/topics/126689.aspx |archivedate=28 February 2014 |df=dmy-all }}
92. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15021328 |last=Melley |first=James |date=28 September 2011 |title=New groups protest at shale gas |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=26 February 2012}}
93. ^{{cite news|title=George Osborne unveils 'most generous tax breaks in world' for fracking: Environmental groups furious as chancellor sets 30% rate for shale gas producers in bid to enhance UK energy security|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/jul/19/george-osborne-tax-break-fracking-shale-environment|accessdate=19 July 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|date=19 July 2013|author=Terry Macalister|author2=Fiona Harvey|quote=Shale gas is a resource with huge potential to broaden the UK's energy mix," said the Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne. "We want to create the right conditions for industry to explore and unlock that potential in a way that allows communities to share in the benefits. "This new tax regime, which I want to make the most generous for shale in the world, will contribute to that. I want Britain to be a leader of the shale gas revolution – because it has the potential to create thousands of jobs and keep energy bills low for millions of people|location=London}}
94. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/fracking-policy-high-court-ruling-government-unlawful-housing-energy-a8810101.html|title=Government fracking policy declared unlawful by High Court|date=6 March 2019|newspaper=The Independent|accessdate=6 March 2019}}
95. ^{{cite web |url=http://thebreakthrough.org/blog/2011/12/interview_with_dan_steward_for.shtml |title=Interview with Dan Steward, Former Mitchell Energy Vice President |date=20 December 2011 |work=Breakthrough blog |publisher=The Breakthrough Institute |accessdate=22 February 2012}}
96. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/a-boom-in-shale-gas-credit-the-feds/2011/12/07/gIQAecFIzO_story.html |title=A boom in shale gas? Credit the feds |author=Michael Shellenberger and Ted Nordhaus |date=16 December 2011 |newspaper=The Washington Post |accessdate=22 February 2012}}
97. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-02-13/new-jersey-senate-committee-again-passes-gas-fracking-ban.html |title=New Jersey Senate Committee Again Passes Gas-Fracking Ban |author=Terrence Dopp |date=13 February 2012 |newspaper=Businessweek |accessdate=22 February 2012}}
98. ^{{cite web |url=https://udayton.edu/directory/law/documents/watson/watson-landowner-lawsuit-article.pdf |title=Hydraulic Fracturing and Tort Litigation: A Survey of Landowner Lawsuits |date=September–October 2017 |work=Real Property, Trust and Estate Law |publisher=American Bar Association |accessdate=8 July 2018}}
99. ^{{cite web |url=http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/hydraulicfracturing/wells_hydroreg.cfm |title= Regulation of Hydraulic Fracturing by the Office of Water |publisher=US EPA |date=6 October 2011 |accessdate=14 October 2011}}
100. ^{{cite web |url = http://governor.vermont.gov/blog-video-vermont-becomes-first-state-to-ban-fracking-democracy-now |title = Vermont Becomes 1st State to Ban Fracking |date = 17 May 2012 |accessdate = 26 June 2012 |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130831145849/http://governor.vermont.gov/blog-video-vermont-becomes-first-state-to-ban-fracking-democracy-now |archivedate = 31 August 2013 |df = dmy-all}}
101. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2014/12/18/371597785/citing-heath-environment-concerns-new-york-moves-to-ban-fracking|title=Citing Health, Environment Concerns, New York Moves To Ban Fracking|date=18 December 2014|website=Npr.org}}
102. ^{{Cite news|url=http://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/243625-maryland-bans-fracking|title=Maryland bans fracking|last=Cama|first=Timothy|date=2015-06-01|newspaper=TheHill|access-date=2016-11-27}}