请输入您要查询的百科知识：

　

词条 Salbutamol
释义

  1. Medical uses

  2. Adverse effects

  3. Pharmacology

  4. Chemistry

     Structure and activity 

  5. History

  6. Society and culture

     Cost  Names  Doping 

  7. Research

  8. Veterinary use

  9. See also

  10. References

  11. External links

{{Use British English|date=June 2017}}{{drugbox
| Verifiedfields = changed
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 418791908
| drug_name =
| IUPAC_name = (RS)-4-[2-(tert-Butylamino)-1-hydroxyethyl]-2-(hydroxymethyl)phenol
| image = Salbutamol.svg
| width = 200
| image2 = RS-salbutamol-from-xtal-3D-balls.png
| caption = Salbutamol (top),
(R)-(−)-salbutamol (center) and
(S)-(+)-salbutamol (bottom)
| chirality = Racemic mixture
| USAN = Albuterol
| tradename = Ventolin, Proventil, others[1]
| Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|albuterol}}
| pregnancy_AU = A
| pregnancy_AU_comment = [1]
| pregnancy_US = C
| pregnancy_US_comment = [2]
| legal_AU = S3/S4
| legal_AU_comment = [3]
| legal_CA = Rx-only
| legal_CA_comment = [4]
| legal_UK = POM
| legal_US = Rx-only
| licence_US = Albuterol
| routes_of_administration = by mouth, inhalational, IV
| metabolism = Liver
| elimination_half-life = 3.8–6 hours
| excretion = Kidney
| onset = <15 min (inhaled), <30 min (pill)[6]
| duration_of_action = 2–6 hrs[6]
| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}}
| CAS_number = 18559-94-9
| ATC_prefix = R03
| ATC_suffix = AC02
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|R03|CC02}}
| PubChem = 2083
| IUPHAR_ligand = 558
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|changed|drugbank}}
| DrugBank = DB01001
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 1999
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = QF8SVZ843E
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = D02147
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 2549
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 714
| C=13 | H=21 | N=1 | O=3
| molecular_weight = 239.311 g/mol
| smiles = OCc1cc(ccc1O)C(O)CNC(C)(C)C
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C13H21NO3/c1-13(2,3)14-7-12(17)9-4-5-11(16)10(6-9)8-15/h4-6,12,14-17H,7-8H2,1-3H3
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = NDAUXUAQIAJITI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
|alt=|type=|MedlinePlus=|legal_status=|licence_EU=|pregnancy_category=}}Salbutamol, also known as albuterol and marketed as Ventolin among other brand names,[1] is a medication that opens up the medium and large airways in the lungs.[5] It is used to treat asthma, including asthma attacks, exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).[5] It may also be used to treat high blood potassium levels.[6] Salbutamol is usually used with an inhaler or nebulizer, but it is also available as a pill and intravenous solution.[5][7] Onset of action of the inhaled version is typically within 15 minutes and lasts for two to six hours.[5]

Common side effects include shakiness, headache, fast heart rate, dizziness, and feeling anxious.[5] Serious side effects may include worsening bronchospasm, irregular heartbeat, and low blood potassium levels.[5] It can be used during pregnancy and breastfeeding, but safety is not entirely clear.[5][8] It is a short-acting β2 adrenergic receptor agonist which works by causing relaxation of airway smooth muscle.[5]

Salbutamol was patented in 1966 in Britain and became commercially available in the UK in 1969.[9][10] It was approved for medical use in the United States in 1982.[5] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, which lists the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system.[11] Salbutamol is available as a generic medication.[5] The wholesale cost in the developing world of an inhaler which contains 200 doses is between US$1.12 and US$2.64 as of 2014.[12] In the United States, it is between US$25 and US$50 for a typical month's supply.[13] In 2016, it was the 10th most prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 47 million prescriptions.[14]

Medical uses

Salbutamol is typically used to treat bronchospasm (due to any cause—allergic asthma or exercise-induced), as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.[5] It is also one of the most common medicines used in rescue inhalers (short-term bronchodilators to alleviate asthma attacks).[15]

As a β2 agonist, salbutamol also has use in obstetrics. Intravenous salbutamol can be used as a tocolytic to relax the uterine smooth muscle to delay premature labor. While preferred over agents such as atosiban and ritodrine, its role has largely been replaced by the calcium channel blocker nifedipine, which is more effective, better tolerated, and administered orally.[16]

Salbutamol has been used to treat acute hyperkalemia, as it stimulates potassium flow into cells, thus lowering the potassium in the blood.[6]

Adverse effects

The most common side effects are fine tremor, anxiety, headache, muscle cramps, dry mouth, and palpitation.[17] Other symptoms may include tachycardia, arrhythmia, flushing of the skin, myocardial ischemia (rare), and disturbances of sleep and behaviour.[17] Rarely occurring, but of importance, are allergic reactions of paradoxical bronchospasms, urticaria (hives), angioedema, hypotension, and collapse. High doses or prolonged use may cause hypokalemia, which is of concern especially in patients with renal failure and those on certain diuretics and xanthine derivatives.[17]

Pharmacology

The tertiary butyl group in salbutamol makes it more selective for β2 receptors,[18] which are the predominant receptors on the bronchial smooth muscles. Activation of these receptors causes adenylyl cyclase to convert ATP to cAMP, beginning the signalling cascade that ends with the inhibition of myosin phosphorylation and lowering the intracellular concentration of calcium ions (myosin phosphorylation and calcium ions are necessary for muscle contractions). The increase in cAMP also inhibits inflammatory cells in the airway, such as basophils, eosinophils, and most especially mast cells, from releasing inflammatory mediators and cytokines.[36][19] Salbutamol and other β2 receptor agonists also increase the conductance of channels sensitive to calcium and potassium ions, leading to hyperpolarization and relaxation of bronchial smooth muscles.[20]

Salbutamol is either filtered out by the kidneys directly or is first metabolized into 4'-O-sulphate, which is excreted in the urine.[7]

Chemistry

Structure and activity

Salbutamol is sold as a racemic mixture. The (R)-(−)-enantiomer (CIP nomenclature) is shown in the image at right (top), and is responsible for the pharmacologic activity; the (S)-(+)-enantiomer (bottom) blocks metabolic pathways associated with elimination of itself and of the pharmacologically active enantiomer (R).[21] The slower metabolism of the (S)-(+)-enantiomer also causes it to accumulate in the lungs, which can cause airway hyperreactivity and inflammation.[22]

History

Salbutamol was discovered in 1966 by a team led by David Jack at the Allen and Hanburys laboratory (a subsidiary of Glaxo) in Ware, Hertfordshire, England, and was launched as Ventolin in 1969.[23]

The 1972 Munich Olympics were the first Olympics where anti-doping measures were deployed, and at that time beta-2 agonists were considered to be stimulants with high risk of abuse for doping. Inhaled salbutamol was banned from those games, but by 1986 was permitted (although oral beta-2 agonists were not). After a steep rise in the number of athletes taking beta-2 agonists for asthma in the 1990s, Olympic athletes were required to provide proof that they had asthma in order be allowed to use inhaled beta-2 agonists.[24]

Society and culture

Cost

The wholesale cost of a 200-dose inhaler is between US$1.12 and US$2.64 in the developing world {{As of|2014|lc=y}}[12] and {{GBP|1.50}} in the United Kingdom {{As of|2015|lc=y}}.[25] In the United States, a typical month's supply is between $25 and $50.[13]

Names

Salbutamol is the INN (international nonproprietary name) while albuterol is the USAN (United States adopted name). The drug is usually manufactured and distributed as the sulphate salt (salbutamol sulphate).

It was first sold by Allen & Hanburys (UK) under the brand name Ventolin, and has been used for the treatment of asthma ever since.[26] The drug is marketed under many names worldwide.[27]

Doping

{{As of|2011}} there was no evidence that an increase in physical performance occurs after inhaling salbutamol, but various reports for benefit when delivered orally or intravenously.[28][29] In spite of this, salbutamol required "a declaration of Use in accordance with the International Standard for Therapeutic Use Exemptions" under the 2010 WADA prohibited list. This requirement was relaxed when the 2011 list was published to permit the use of "salbutamol (maximum 1600 micrograms over 24 hours) and salmeterol when taken by inhalation in accordance with the manufacturers’ recommended therapeutic regimen."[30][31]

Abuse of the drug may be confirmed by detection of its presence in plasma or urine, typically exceeding 1000 ng/mL. The window of detection for urine testing is on the order of just 24 hours, given the relatively short elimination half-life of the drug,[32][33][34] estimated at between 5 and 6 hours following oral administration of 4 mg.[35]

Research

Salbutamol has been studied in subtypes of congenital myasthenic syndrome associated with mutations in Dok-7.[36]

It has also been tested in a trial aimed at treatment of spinal muscular atrophy; it is speculated to modulate the alternative splicing of the SMN2 gene, increasing the amount of the SMN protein whose deficiency is regarded as a cause of the disease.[37][38]

Veterinary use

Salbutamol's low toxicity makes it safe for other animals and thus is the medication of choice for treating acute airway obstruction in most species.[22] It is usually used to treat bronchospasm or coughs in cats and dogs and used as a bronchodilator in horses with recurrent airway obstruction; it can also be used in emergencies to treat asthmatic cats.[39][40]

Toxic effects require an extremely high dose, and most overdoses are due to dogs chewing on and puncturing an inhaler or nebulizer vial.[41]

See also

  • Ipratropium/salbutamol
  • Isoprenaline
  • Levosalbutamol – the (R)-(−)-enantiomer
  • Salmeterol

References

1. ^{{cite web| title=Prescribing medicines in pregnancy database | author=Thereaputic Goods Administration | publisher=Australian Government | url=https://www.tga.gov.au/prescribing-medicines-pregnancy-database| date=2018-12-19 }}
2. ^{{cite web|title=HSDB:Albuterol| work=ToxNet | publisher=US National Library of Medicine| url=http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search2/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@DOCNO+7206}}
3. ^{{cite web|title=Poisons Standard October 2017|url=https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2017L01285/Html/Text#_Toc471222305| author=Thereaputic Goods Administration | publisher=Australian Government}}
4. ^{{cite web|title=Prescription Drug List|publisher=Government of Canada|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-health-products/drug-products/prescription-drug-list/list.html}}
5. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 {{cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/albuterol.html|title=Albuterol|last=|first=|date=|website=Drugs.com|publisher=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208181121/http://www.drugs.com/monograph/albuterol.html|archive-date=2015-12-08|dead-url=no|accessdate=Dec 2, 2015|df=}}
6. ^1 {{cite journal|last2=Smith|first2=WA|last3=Lo|first3=DS|last4=Tsoi|first4=K|last5=Tonelli|first5=M|last6=Clase|first6=CM|date=18 April 2005|title=Emergency interventions for hyperkalaemia.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=|issue=2|pages=CD003235|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003235.pub2|pmid=15846652|via=|last1=Mahoney|first1=BA}}
7. ^1 {{cite journal|last2=Mulla|first2=H|last3=Sammons|first3=HM|last4=Pandya|first4=HC|date=September 2014|title=Intravenous salbutamol for childhood asthma: evidence-based medicine?|url=https://derbyhospitals-nhs.archive.knowledgearc.net/bitstream/handle/123456789/297/%2814%29%20Arch%20Dis%20Child.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood|volume=99|issue=9|pages=873–7|doi=10.1136/archdischild-2013-304467|pmid=24938536|via=|last1=Starkey|first1=ES|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908175627/https://derbyhospitals-nhs.archive.knowledgearc.net/bitstream/handle/123456789/297/%2814%29%20Arch%20Dis%20Child.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|archivedate=2017-09-08|df=}}
8. ^{{cite book|last1=Yaffe|first1=Sumner J.|title=Drugs in pregnancy and lactation: a reference guide to fetal and neonatal risk|date=2011|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9781608317080|page=32|edition=9th|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=OIgTE4aynrMC&pg=PA32|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208061118/https://books.google.ca/books?id=OIgTE4aynrMC&pg=PA32|archivedate=2015-12-08|df=}}
9. ^{{cite book|last1=Landau|first1=Ralph|title=Pharmaceutical innovation: revolutionizing human health|date=1999|publisher=Chemical Heritage Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780941901215|page=226|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=IH4lPs6S1bMC&pg=PA226|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208072936/https://books.google.ca/books?id=IH4lPs6S1bMC&pg=PA226|archivedate=2015-12-08|df=}}
10. ^{{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Jnos |last2=Ganellin |first2=C. Robin |title=Analogue-based Drug Discovery |date=2006 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9783527607495 |page=542 |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=FjKfqkaKkAAC&pg=PA542 |language=en}}
11. ^{{cite web|title=WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (19th List)|url=http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/essentialmedicines/EML_2015_FINAL_amended_NOV2015.pdf?ua=1|work=World Health Organization|accessdate=8 December 2016|date=April 2015|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213052708/http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/essentialmedicines/EML_2015_FINAL_amended_NOV2015.pdf?ua=1|archivedate=13 December 2016|df=}}
12. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=Salbutamol|url=http://mshpriceguide.org/en/single-drug-information/?DMFId=708&searchYear=2014|website=International Drug Price Indicator Guide|accessdate=5 December 2015}}
13. ^1 {{cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=Richart |title=Tarascon Pocket Pharmacopoeia 2015 Deluxe Lab-Coat Edition |date=2015 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=9781284057560|page=448}}
14. ^{{cite web |title=The Top 300 of 2019 |url=https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx |website=clincalc.com |accessdate=22 December 2018}}
15. ^{{Cite web | last=Hatfield | first=Heather | title=Asthma: The Rescue Inhaler -- Now a Cornerstone of Asthma Treatment | work=WebMD | accessdate=2017-06-27 | url=http://www.webmd.com/asthma/features/asthma-rescue-inhaler-cornerstone-asthma-treatment | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716061632/http://www.webmd.com/asthma/features/asthma-rescue-inhaler-cornerstone-asthma-treatment | archivedate=2017-07-16 | df= }}
16. ^{{cite book|title=Australian Medicines Handbook|last=Rossi|first=S|publisher=AMH|year=2004|isbn=978-0-9578521-4-3|location=|pages=}}
17. ^1 2 {{cite book |title=British National Formulary |publisher=BMJ Publishing Group Ltd and Royal Pharmaceutical Society Publishing |location=London |date=March 2008 |edition=57 |chapter=3.1.1.1 Selective beta2 agonists – side effects |pages=|isbn=978-0-85369-778-7 |oclc= |doi= }}
18. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sd6ot9ul-bUC&pg=PA1315|title=Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry|last2=Williams|first2=D.A.|last3=Roche|first3=V.F.|last4=Zito|first4=S.W.|date=2013|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=9781609133450|location=Philadelphia, PA|pages=1314–1320|oclc=748675182|last1=Lemke|first1=T.L.|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908175627/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sd6ot9ul-bUC&pg=PA1315|archivedate=2017-09-08|df=}}
19. ^{{Cite book | last=Papich | first=Mark G. | title=Saunders Handbook of Veterinary Drugs | chapter=Albuterol Sulfate | location=St. Louis, Mo | date=2007 | edition=2nd | publisher=Saunders/Elsevier | isbn=9781416028888 | pages=10–11}}
20. ^{{cite web | last=US Department of Health and Human Services | title=Albuterol - Medical Countermeasures Database | work=CHEMM | accessdate=2017-06-23 | date=2017-04-28 | url=https://chemm.nlm.nih.gov/countermeasure_albuterol.htm | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803045423/https://chemm.nlm.nih.gov/countermeasure_albuterol.htm | archivedate=2017-08-03 | df= }}
21. ^{{cite web|url=http://pharmaxchange.info/notes/medicinal_chemistry/adrenergics_cholinergics.html|title=Medicinal Chemistry of the Peripheral Nervous System – Adrenergics and Cholinergics their Biosynthesis, Metabolism, and Structure Activity Relationships|last=Mehta|first=Akul|date=|website=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104022742/http://pharmaxchange.info/notes/medicinal_chemistry/adrenergics_cholinergics.html|archive-date=2010-11-04|dead-url=yes|accessdate=2010-10-20|df=}}
22. ^1 {{Cite web | title=Inhalation Therapy of Airway Disease | work=Merck Veterinary Manual | accessdate=2017-06-22 | url=http://www.merckvetmanual.com/pharmacology/systemic-pharmacotherapeutics-of-the-respiratory-system/inhalation-therapy-of-airway-disease | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625203315/http://www.merckvetmanual.com/pharmacology/systemic-pharmacotherapeutics-of-the-respiratory-system/inhalation-therapy-of-airway-disease | archivedate=2017-06-25 | df= }}
23. ^{{cite news|title=Sir David Jack, who has died aged 87, was the scientific brain behind the rise of the pharmaceuticals company Glaxo|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/finance-obituaries/8897458/Sir-David-Jack.html|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=Nov 17, 2011|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125011155/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/finance-obituaries/8897458/Sir-David-Jack.html|archivedate=2011-11-25|df=}}
24. ^{{cite journal|last1=Fitch|first1=KD|title=beta2-Agonists at the Olympic Games|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|date=2006|volume=31|issue=2–3|pages=259–68|doi=10.1385/CRIAI:31:2:259|pmid=17085798}}
25. ^{{cite book|title=BNF 69: March 2015 - September 2015|date=March 31, 2015|publisher=Pharmaceutical Pr|isbn=9780857111562|page=190|edition=69}}
26. ^{{cite journal |url= http://www.pharmj.com/pdf/articles/pj_20071013_landmarkdrugs01.pdf |title= Ventolin remains a breath of fresh air for asthma sufferers, after 40 years |journal= The Pharmaceutical Journal |volume= 279 |issue= 7473 |pages= 404–405|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015201448/http://www.pharmj.com/pdf/articles/pj_20071013_landmarkdrugs01.pdf|archivedate=October 15, 2007}}
27. ^1 2 {{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/international/salbutamol.html|title=Salbutamol|last=|first=|date=|website=Drugs.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160330054502/http://www.drugs.com/international/salbutamol.html|archive-date=2016-03-30|dead-url=no|access-date=April 11, 2016|df=}}
28. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.2165/11537540-000000000-00000 |pmid=21142283 |title=β2-Agonists and Physical Performance |journal=Sports Medicine |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=39–57 |year=2011 |last1=Pluim |first1=Babette M |last2=De Hon |first2=Olivier |last3=Staal |first3=J. Bart |last4=Limpens |first4=Jacqueline |last5=Kuipers |first5=Harm |last6=Overbeek |first6=Shelley E |last7=Zwinderman |first7=Aeilko H |last8=Scholten |first8=Rob J.P.M }}
29. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/bjp.2008.164 |pmid=18500380 |pmc=2439523 |title=The rush to adrenaline: Drugs in sport acting on the β-adrenergic system |journal=British Journal of Pharmacology |volume=154 |issue=3 |pages=584–97 |year=2008 |last1=Davis |first1=E |last2=Loiacono |first2=R |last3=Summers |first3=R J }}
30. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/World_Anti-Doping_Program/WADP-Prohibited-list/WADA_Prohibited_List_2010_EN.pdf |title= The 2010 Prohibited List International Standard |publisher= WADA |accessdate= 2010-10-20 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130911050811/http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/World_Anti-Doping_Program/WADP-Prohibited-list/WADA_Prohibited_List_2010_EN.pdf |archivedate= 2013-09-11 |df= }}
31. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/World_Anti-Doping_Program/WADP-Prohibited-list/To_be_effective/WADA_Prohibited_List_2011_EN.pdf |title= The 2011 Prohibited List International Standard |publisher= WADA |accessdate= 2012-05-22 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20120513015917/http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/World_Anti-Doping_Program/WADP-Prohibited-list/To_be_effective/WADA_Prohibited_List_2011_EN.pdf |archivedate= 2012-05-13 |df= }}
32. ^{{cite book |first= R. |last= Baselt |title= Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man |edition= 8th |publisher= Biomedical Publications |year= 2008 |pages= 33–35 |isbn= 978-0-9626523-6-3 }}
33. ^{{cite journal |author= Berges, Rosa |author2= S |author3= V |author4= F |author5= M |author6= F |author7= M |author8= D |title= Discrimination of Prohibited Oral Use of Salbutamol from Authorized Inhaled Asthma Treatment |url= http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/abstract/46/9/1365 |journal= Clinical Chemistry |volume= 46 |issue= 9 |pages= 1365–75 |year= 2000 |pmid= 10973867 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110717111432/http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/abstract/46/9/1365 |archivedate= 2011-07-17 |df= }}
34. ^{{cite journal |doi= 10.1097/00042752-200409000-00018 |last1= Schweizer |first1= C |last2= Saugy |first2= M |last3= Kamber |first3= M |title= Doping test reveals high concentrations of salbutamol in a Swiss track and field athlete |journal= Clin. J. Sport Med. |volume= 14 |issue= 5 |pages= 312–315 |year= 2004 |url= http://journals.lww.com/cjsportsmed/Abstract/2004/09000/Doping_Test_Reveals_High_Concentrations_of.18.aspx |pmid= 15377972 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20121005191945/http://journals.lww.com/cjsportsmed/Abstract/2004/09000/Doping_Test_Reveals_High_Concentrations_of.18.aspx |archivedate= 2012-10-05 |df= }}{{closed access}}
35. ^1 {{cite web| title= Albuterol Sulfate| work= Rx List: The Internet Drug Index| url= http://www.rxlist.com/albuterol-sulfate-drug/clinical-pharmacology.htm| accessdate= 2014-07-13| deadurl= no| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140718041226/http://www.rxlist.com/albuterol-sulfate-drug/clinical-pharmacology.htm| archivedate= 2014-07-18| df= }}
36. ^{{cite journal |last= Liewluck |first= Teerin |last2= Selcen |first2= Duygu |last3= Engel |first3= Andrew G. |date= November 2011 |title= Beneficial effects of albuterol in congenital endplate acetylcholinesterase deficiency and Dok-7 myasthenia |journal= Muscle & Nerve |volume= 44 |issue= 5 |pages= 789–794 |doi= 10.1002/mus.22176 |pmc= 3196786 |pmid= 21952943 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20151208094143/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mus.22176/abstract |archivedate= 2015-12-08 |df= }}
37. ^{{Cite journal | last1 = Van Meerbeke | first1 = J. P. | last2 = Sumner | first2 = C. J. | title = Progress and promise: The current status of spinal muscular atrophy therapeutics | journal = Discovery Medicine | volume = 12 | issue = 65 | pages = 291–305 | year = 2011 | pmid = 22031667| url = http://www.discoverymedicine.com/James-P-Van-Meerbeke/2011/10/12/progress-and-promise-the-current-status-of-spinal-muscular-atrophy-therapeutics/}}
38. ^{{Cite journal | last1 = Lewelt | first1 = A. | last2 = Newcomb | first2 = T. M. | last3 = Swoboda | first3 = K. J. | doi = 10.1007/s11910-011-0240-9 | title = New Therapeutic Approaches to Spinal Muscular Atrophy | journal = Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 42–53 | year = 2011 | pmid = 22134788| pmc =3260050 }}
39. ^{{cite book | last=Plumb | first=Donald C. | title=Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook | chapter=Albuterol Sulfate | location=Stockholm, Wisconsin; Ames, Iowa | date=2011 | edition=7th | publisher=Wiley | isbn=9780470959640 | pages=24–25}}
40. ^{{cite book | last1=Clarke | first1=Kathy W. | last2=Trim | first2=Cynthia M. | title=Veterinary Anaesthesia E-Book | date=2013-06-28 | publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences | isbn=9780702054235 | page=612 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZh5AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA612 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908175627/https://books.google.com/books?id=hZh5AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA612 | archivedate=2017-09-08 | df= }}
41. ^{{Cite book | last=Cote | first=Etienne | title=Clinical Veterinary Advisor - E-Book: Dogs and Cats | chapter=Albuterol Toxicosis | date=2014-12-09 | publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences | isbn=9780323240741 | pages=45–46 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NmziBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR120 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908175627/https://books.google.com/books?id=NmziBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR120 | archivedate=2017-09-08 | df= }}

External links

  • U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal – Albuterol
  • Salbutamol at The Periodic Table of Videos
{{Adrenergic agonists}}{{Asthma_and_copd rx}}{{Phenethylamines}}{{GlaxoSmithKline}}{{portal bar|Pharmacy and pharmacology|Medicine}}

12 : Alcohols|Antiasthmatic drugs|Beta-adrenergic agonists|Chemical substances for emergency medicine|Phenethylamines|Phenols|RTT|Sympathomimetic amines|World Health Organization essential medicines|Tert-butyl compounds|Merck|GlaxoSmithKline brands
随便看

　

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。

　

Copyright © 2023 OENC.NET All Rights Reserved
京ICP备2021023879号 更新时间：2024/11/12 5:50:53