| 释义 |
- Plot
- Cast
- Production Development Filming
- Release and legacy
- See also
- Notes
- References
- Bibliography Books Newspapers Websites
- External links
{{short description|Silent film by R. Nataraja Mudaliar}}{{featured article}}{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}{{Infobox film
| name = Keechaka Vadham
| image =
| caption =
| director = R. Nataraja Mudaliar
| producer = R. Nataraja Mudaliar
| writer = C. Rangavadivelu
| starring = Raju Mudaliar
Jeevarathnam
| cinematography = R. Nataraja Mudaliar
| editing = R. Nataraja Mudaliar
| studio = India Film Company
| released = 1916–1918{{efn|While film historian S. Theodore Baskaran, film director R. K. Selvamani and historian Prem Chowdhry state the film release date as 1916, film historians Suresh Chabria and Film News Anandan said the film was released in 1917.{{Sfnm|1a1=Film News Anandan|1y=1998|2a1=Chowdhry|2y=2000|2p=140|3a1=Chabria|3y=2005|3pp=451–452|4a1=Baskaran|4y=2011|5a1=K. R.|5y=2015}} Film historians Randor Guy, S. Muthiah and history professor Knut A. Jacobsen asserted the film was released in 1918.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=2002|2a1=Muthiah|2y=2009|3a1=Jacobsen|3y=2015|3p=337}}}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Silent
| budget = {{INR}}35,000{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=2002|2a1=Muthiah|2y=2009}}
| gross = {{INR}}50,000{{Sfn|Muthiah|2009}}
}}Keechaka Vadham ({{lang-en|The Extermination of Keechaka|italic=yes}}){{Sfn|Baskaran|2013|p=14}} is an Indian silent film produced, directed, filmed and edited by R. Nataraja Mudaliar. The first film to have been made in South India, it was shot in five weeks at Nataraja Mudaliar's production house, India Film Company. As the members of the cast were Tamils, Keechaka Vadham is considered to be the first Tamil film. No print of it is known to have survived, making it a lost film. The screenplay, written by C. Rangavadivelu, is based on an episode from the Virata Parva segment of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, focusing on Keechaka's attempts to woo Draupadi. The film stars Raju Mudaliar and Jeevarathnam as the central characters. Released in the late 1910s, Keechaka Vadham was commercially successful and received positive critical feedback. The film's success prompted Nataraja Mudaliar to make a series of similar historical films, which laid the foundation for the South Indian cinema industry and led to his being recognised as the father of Tamil cinema. Nataraja Mudaliar's works were an inspiration to other filmmakers including Raghupathi Surya Prakasa and J. C. Daniel. Plot Keechaka, the commander of King Virata's forces, attempts to woo and marry Draupadi by any means necessary; he even tries to molest Draupadi, prompting her to tell Bhima, her husband and one of the Pandava brothers, about it. Later, when Keechaka meets Draupadi, she requests him to rendezvous with her at a secret hiding place. He arrives there, only to find Bhima instead of Draupadi; Bhima kills him.{{Sfnm|1a1=Buck|1y=2000|1pp=215–222|2a1=Muthiah|2y=2009}} Cast - Raju Mudaliar as Keechaka
- Jeevarathnam as Draupadi
Production Development R. Nataraja Mudaliar, a car dealer who was based in Madras,{{efn|The city was renamed Chennai in 1996.{{Sfn|Venkatesan|2014}}}} developed an interest in motion pictures after watching Dadasaheb Phalke's 1913 mythological film, Raja Harishchandra at the Gaiety theatre in Madras.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=2000|2a1=Balakrishnan|2y=2015}} The former then learned the basics of photography and filmmaking from Stewart Smith, a Poona-based British cinematographer who had worked on a documentary that chronicled the viceroyship of Lord Curzon(1899–1905).{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=1997|1pp=21–22|2a1=Guy|2y=2002|3a1=Chabria|3y=2005|3pp=451–452}} Nataraja Mudaliar bought a Williamson 35 mm camera and printer from Mooppanar, a wealthy landowner based in Thanjavur, for {{INR}}1,800.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=1997|1p=22|2a1=Guy|2y=2002}}{{efn|The average exchange rate in 1917 was 0.077 Indian rupees ({{INR}}) per 1 US dollar (US$).{{Sfn|Roy|2015}}|name=exchange}} In 1915, he established the India Film Company, which was South India's first production company. He then set up a film studio on Miller's Road in Purasawalkam with the help of business associates who invested in his production house.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=2002|2a1=Pinto|2a2=Srivastava|2y=2008|2pp=42–43|3a1=Rajadhyaksha|3a2=Willemen|3y=2014|3p=152}}{{efn|According to Baskaran and Tamil feminist writer C. S. Lakshmi, the place where Nataraja Mudaliar founded the India Film Company was previously known as Tower House.{{Sfnm|1a1=Lakshmi|1y=2004|1p=80|2a1=Baskaran|2y=2013|2p=141}}}} Nataraja Mudaliar sought advice from his friend, theatrical artist Pammal Sambandha Mudaliar, who suggested that he depict the story of Draupadi and Keechaka from the Virata Parva segment of the Hindu epic Mahabharata.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=2002|2a1=Muthiah|2y=2009}} Some of Nataraja Mudaliar's relatives objected, feeling that it was an inappropriate story for his debut venture, but Sambandha Mudaliar persuaded him to proceed with making the film as audiences were familiar with the story.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=1997|1p=22|2a1=Guy|2y=2002|3a1=Pattanaik|3y=2010|3pp=203–206|4a1=Baskaran|4y=2013|4p=14}} Attorney C. Rangavadivelu, a close friend of Nataraja Mudaliar, assisted him in writing the screenplay as the latter was not a writer by profession.{{Sfn|Guy|2002}} The paintings of Raja Ravi Varma provided Nataraja Mudaliar with a source of inspiration for recreating the story on celluloid.{{Sfn|Guy|1997|p=23}} Nataraja Mudaliar cast stage actors Raju Mudaliar and Jeevarathnam as Keechaka and Draupadi, respectively.{{Sfn|Guy|2002}} Filming Keechaka Vadham was filmed on a budget of {{INR}}35,000 (about $2,700 in 1917),{{efn|name=exchange}} which was quite expensive at the time.{{Sfn|Guy|2002}} Principal photography began in 1916–1917, and the film was shot over 35–37 days.{{efn|While historian S. Muthiah wrote that principal photography began in 1917 and took five weeks (35 days) to complete, Pradeep Madhavan of The Hindu Tamil estimated that Keechaka Vadham was shot over the course of 37 days.{{Sfnm|1a1=Muthiah|1y=2009|2a1=Madhavan|2y=2014}} Nataraja Mudaliar said he began shooting the film circa the end of 1916.{{Sfn|Mail|1936}}}} Nataraja Mudaliar imported the film stock London with the help of an Englishman named Carpenter, who worked for the Bombay division of the photographic technology company, Kodak.{{Sfn|Balakrishnan|2015}} Film historian Randor Guy noted in his 1997 book Starlight Starbright: The Early Tamil Cinema that a thin white piece of cloth was used as a ceiling for filming and sunlight was filtered through it onto the floor.{{Sfn|Guy|1997|p=22}} Rangavadivelu was also experienced in playing female roles on stage for the Suguna Vilasa Sabha, and coached the artists on set.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=2002|2a1=Baskaran|2y=2013|2p=141}} The film's production, cinematography and editing were handled by Nataraja Mudaliar himself.{{Sfnm|1a1=Film News Anandan|1y=1998|2a1=Guy|2y=2000}} The film was shot with a speed of 16 frames per second, which was the standard rate for a silent film, at the India Film Company, with intertitles in English, Tamil and Hindi. The Tamil and Hindi intertitles were written by Sambandha Mudaliar and Devdas Gandhi respectively, while Nataraja Mudaliar wrote the English intertitles himself with the assistance of Guruswami Mudaliar and Thiruvengada Mudaliar, a professor from Pachaiyappa's College.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=1997|1p=23|2a1=Guy|2y=2013}} Keechaka Vadham was the first film made in South India; as the cast was Tamil, it is also the first Tamil film.{{Sfnm|1a1=Muthiah|1y=2009|2a1=Thakur|2y=2010}} According to Guy, Nataraja Mudaliar established a laboratory in Bangalore to process the film negatives since there was no film laboratory in Madras. Nataraja Mudaliar believed that Bangalore's colder climate "would be kind to his exposed film stock"; he processed the film negatives there each weekend, and returned on Monday morning to resume filming.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=2007|1p=6|2a1=Baskaran|2y=2013|2p=141}} The film's final reel length was {{Convert|6000|ft|m|abbr=on}}.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=2000|2a1=Muthiah|2y=2009|3a1=Baskaran|3y=2016}} Release and legacy According to Muthiah, Keechaka Vadham was first released at the Elphinstone Theatre in Madras;{{Sfn|Muthiah|2009}} the film netted {{INR}}50,000 (about $3,850 in 1917){{efn|name=exchange}} after being screened in India, Burma, Ceylon, the Federated Malay States and Singapore. The film yielded {{INR}}15,000 (about $1,155 in 1917),{{efn|name=exchange}} which Muthiah noted to be a "tidy profit in those days."{{Sfn|Muthiah|2009}} Writer Firoze Rangoonwalla notes that a reviewer for The Mail praised the film: "It has been prepared with great care and is drawing full houses".{{Sfn|Rangoonwalla|2003|p=31}} Guy pointed out that with the film's critical and commercial success, Nataraja Mudaliar had "created history".{{Sfn|Guy|2000}} Since no print is known to have survived, this makes it a lost film.{{Sfnm|1a1=Thakur|1y=2010|2a1=Suganth|2y=2012}} Keechaka Vadham{{'}}s success inspired Nataraja Mudaliar to make a series of historical films: Draupadi Vastrapaharanam (1918), Lava Kusa (1919), Shiva Leela (1919), Rukmini Satyabhama (1922) and Mahi Ravana (1923).{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=2000|2a1=Guy|2y=2007|2p=6}} He retired from filmmaking in 1923 after a fire that killed his son and destroyed his production house.{{Sfnm|1a1=Guy|1y=2000|2a1=Baskaran|2y=2013|2p=141}} Nataraja Mudaliar is widely regarded as the father of Tamil cinema, and his films helped lay the foundation for the South Indian cinema industry; his works inspired Raghupathi Surya Prakasa, the son of Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu, and J. C. Daniel.{{Sfnm|1a1=Thoraval|1y=2000|1p=16|2a1=Guy|2y=2002|3a1=Velayutham|3y=2008|3pp=2–3|4a1=Baskaran|4y=2011|5a1=Vats|5y=2013|6a1=Subramanian|6y=2013}} See also - Raja Harishchandra, the first Indian silent film
- Kalidas, the first sound film in Tamil cinema
- List of lost films
Notes {{notelist}} References Bibliography Books {{Refbegin|30em}}- {{cite book | title=The Eye of the Serpent: An Introduction To Tamil Cinema | publisher=Westland Books | last=Baskaran | first=S. Theodore | authorlink=S. Theodore Baskaran | location=Chennai | date=15 December 2013 | origyear=1996 | isbn=978-93-83260-74-4 | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bgnHHqPg6R8C | title=Mahabharata | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications | location=Delhi | year=2000 | isbn=978-81-2081-719-7 | last=Buck | first=William | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | title=Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hFxwX-dM008CkC | last=Chabria | first=Suresh | chapter=Mudaliar, R. Nataraja | publisher=Taylor & Francis | location=Abingdon-on-Thames | editor-link=Richard Abel (cultural historian) | editor-last=Abel | editor-first=Richard | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-415-23440-5 | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1UNph7mAT2YC | title=Colonial India and the Making of Empire Cinema: Image, Ideology and Identity | publisher=Manchester University Press | location=Manchester | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-7190-5792-2 | last=Chowdhry | first=Prem | authorlink=Prem Chowdhry | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tWVYGwAACAAJ | title=Starlight, Starbright: The Early Tamil Cinema | publisher=Amra Publishers | last=Guy | first=Randor | authorlink=Randor Guy | location=Chennai | year=1997 | oclc=52794531 | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--9WCgAAQBAJ | title=Routledge Handbook of Contemporary India | publisher=Routledge | location=Abingdon-on-Thames | date=11 August 2015 | isbn=978-1-317-40358-6 | last=Jacobsen | first=Knut A. | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LnflUVu0w2QC | title=The Unhurried City: Writings on Chennai | publisher=Penguin Books | location=London | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-14-303026-3 | last=Lakshmi | first=C. S. | authorlink=C. S. Lakshmi | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzN2_fu0mIYC | title=Jaya: An Illustrated Retelling of the Mahabharata | publisher=Penguin Books | location=London | isbn=978-0-14-310425-4 | year=2010 | last=Pattanaik | first=Devdutt | authorlink=Devdutt Pattanaik | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | last1=Pinto | first1=Jerry | last2=Srivastava | first2=Rahul | title=Talk of the Town | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Az1XFhjzmUwC | year=2008 | publisher=Penguin Books | location=London | isbn=978-0-14-333013-4 | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | last1=Rajadhyaksha | first1=Ashish | last2=Willemen | first2=Paul | title=Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLkABAAAQBAJ | year=2014 | origyear=1999 | publisher=Routledge | location=Abingdon-on-Thames | isbn=978-1-135-94318-9 | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | title=Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8y8vN9A14nkC | last=Rangoonwalla | first=Firoze | chapter=1896–1930: The Early Days | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Popular Prakashan | location=Mumbai | editor=Gulzar | editor-link=Gulzar | editor2-last=Nihalani | editor2-first=Govind | editor2-link=Govind Nihalani | editor3-last=Chatterjee | editor3-first=Saibal | year=2003 | isbn=978-81-7991-066-5 | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_cinemas_of_India.html?id=-OpkAAAAMAAJ | last=Thoraval | first=Yves | title=The cinemas of India | date=2000 | publisher=Macmillan Publishers | location=London | isbn=978-0-333-93410-4 | ref=harv}}
- {{cite book | last=Velayutham | first=Selvaraj | title=Tamil Cinema: The Cultural Politics of India's other Film Industry | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kuPaE3v22zAC | year=2008 | publisher=Taylor & Francis | location=Abingdon-on-Thames | isbn=978-0-203-93037-3 | ref=harv}}
{{Refend}} Newspapers {{Refbegin|30em}}- {{cite news|url=http://madrasmusings.com/Vol%2021%20No%2010/otherstories.html |title=How old is Tamil Cinema? |last=Baskaran |first=S. Theodore |date=September 2011 |work=Madras Musings |accessdate=28 October 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028050046/http://madrasmusings.com/Vol%2021%20No%2010/otherstories.html |archivedate=28 October 2015 |deadurl=no |volume=XXI |issue=10 |ref={{Sfnref|Baskaran|2011}}}}
- {{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/From-the-shadows-into-the-limelight/article14027204.ece |title=From the shadows into the limelight |work=The Hindu |date=30 January 2016 |accessdate=6 April 2017 |last=Baskaran |first=S. Theodore |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403055833/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/From-the-shadows-into-the-limelight/article14027204.ece |archivedate= 3 April 2017 |deadurl=no |ref={{Sfnref|Baskaran|2016}}}}
- {{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/2000/07/10/stories/09100224.htm |title=The stamp of honour |work=The Hindu |date=10 July 2000 |accessdate=30 June 2011 |last=Guy |first=Randor |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918010758/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/2000/07/10/stories/09100224.htm |archivedate=18 September 2015 |deadurl=no |ref={{Sfnref|Guy|2000}}}}
- {{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/05/09/stories/2002050900170300.htm |title=Remembering a pioneer |work=The Hindu |date=9 May 2002 |accessdate=29 June 2011 |last=Guy |first=Randor |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918005729/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/05/09/stories/2002050900170300.htm |archivedate=18 September 2015 |deadurl=no |ref={{Sfnref|Guy|2002}}}}
- {{cite news|title=A Miller's Road Film Pioneer |url=http://madrasmusings.com/older-archives/Vol%2017/Vol%20XVII%20-%20No%2016.pdf |last=Guy |first=Randor |work=Madras Musings |accessdate=28 October 2015 |page= 6|date=December 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028045458/http://madrasmusings.com/older-archives/Vol%2017/Vol%20XVII%20-%20No%2016.pdf |archivedate=28 October 2015 |deadurl=no |volume=XVII |issue=16 |ref={{Sfnref|Guy|2007}}}}
- {{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/the-forgotten-heroes/article5204125.ece |title=The forgotten heroes |work=The Hindu |date=5 October 2013 |accessdate=6 October 2013 |last=Guy |first=Randor |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918010848/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/the-forgotten-heroes/article5204125.ece |archivedate=18 September 2015 |deadurl=no |ref={{Sfnref|Guy|2013}}}}
- {{cite news | url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Director-Association-May-Screen-Classic-Films-for-Free/2015/11/26/article3146522.ece | title=Director' Association May Screen Classic Films for Free | work=The New Indian Express | date=26 November 2015 | accessdate=14 May 2016 | last=K. R. | first=Manigandan | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514024118/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Director-Association-May-Screen-Classic-Films-for-Free/2015/11/26/article3146522.ece | archivedate=14 May 2016 | deadurl=no | ref={{Sfnref|K. R.|2015}}}}
- {{cite news | url=http://tamil.thehindu.com/cinema/cinema-others/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D/article6341117.ece | title=சென்னையும் சினிமாவும்: குதிரைகள் தயவால் உருவான கோடம்பாக்கம்! |trans-title=Chennai and cinema: Kodambakkam, a place that evolved with the help of horses! | work=The Hindu Tamil | date=22 August 2014 | accessdate=7 January 2017 | last=Madhavan | first=Pradeep | language=Tamil | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107104647/http://tamil.thehindu.com/cinema/cinema-others/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D/article6341117.ece | archivedate=7 January 2017 | deadurl=no | ref={{Sfnref|Madhavan|2014}}}}
- {{Cite news |url=https://timestamil.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/nataraja-mudaliyar.jpg |title=He Founded the Motion Picture Industry in South India |date=24 December 1936 |work=The Madras Mail|ref={{Sfnref|Mail|1936}}}}
- {{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/the-pioneer-tamil-filmmaker/article15949.ece |title=The pioneer 'Tamil' film-maker |work=The Hindu |date=7 September 2009 |accessdate=29 June 2011 |last=Muthiah |first=S. |authorlink=S. Muthiah |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918005505/http://www.thehindu.com/arts/the-pioneer-tamil-filmmaker/article15949.ece |archivedate=18 September 2015 |deadurl=no |ref={{Sfnref|Muthiah|2009}}}}
- {{cite news|url=http://www.theshillongtimes.com/2013/06/04/the-mystery-of-indias-purchasing-power-parity/ |title=The mystery of India's purchasing power parity |work=Shillong Times |date=4 June 2013 |accessdate=29 October 2015 |last=Roy |first=Anjan |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20170105085159/http://www.theshillongtimes.com/2013/06/04/the-mystery-of-indias-purchasing-power-parity/ |archivedate= 5 January 2017 |deadurl=no |ref={{Sfnref|Roy|2015}}}}
- {{cite news |url=http://archives.deccanchronicle.com/130529/entertainment-kollywood/article/classics-must-be-preserved-says-b-mahendra |title=Classics must be preserved, says B. Mahendra |work=Deccan Chronicle |date=29 May 2013 |accessdate=5 June 2013 |last=Subramanian |first=Anupama |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028022043/http://archives.deccanchronicle.com/130529/entertainment-kollywood/article/classics-must-be-preserved-says-b-mahendra |archivedate=28 October 2015 |deadurl=yes |ref={{Sfnref|Subramanian|2013}} |df=dmy-all }}
- {{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Black-and-white-films-in-Kollywood/articleshowprint/12098170.cms |title=Black and white films in Kollywood |work=The Times of India |date=2 March 2012 |accessdate=25 November 2012 |last=Suganth |first=M. |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20180301164820/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Black-and-white-films-in-Kollywood/articleshowprint/12098170.cms |archivedate=1 March 2018 |deadurl=no |ref={{Sfnref|Suganth|2012}} |df=dmy-all }}
- {{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Gone-forever/articleshow/5880201.cms? |title=Gone Forever |work=The Times of India |last=Thakur |first=Atul |date=1 May 2010 |accessdate=29 June 2011 |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20180121083645/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Gone-forever/articleshow/5880201.cms |archivedate=21 January 2018 |deadurl=no |ref={{Sfnref|Thakur|2010}}}}
- {{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-madras-day-tracing-a-city-s-transformation-as-chennai-turns-375-2012781 |title=Madras Day: Tracing a city’s transformation as Chennai turns 375 |work=Daily News and Analysis |date=22 August 2014 |accessdate=28 October 2015 |last=Venkatesan |first=Deepa |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20170105085157/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-madras-day-tracing-a-city-s-transformation-as-chennai-turns-375-2012781 |archivedate= 5 January 2017 |deadurl=no |ref={{Sfnref|Venkatesan|2014}}}}
{{Refend}} Websites {{Refbegin|30em}}- {{cite web | url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/others/cinema-serials/50885.html | title=தமிழ் சினிமா முன்னோடிகள் (4) : ஆர். நடராஜ முதலியார் | trans-title=Pioneers of Tamil Cinema (4) : R. Nataraja Mudaliar | work=Ananda Vikatan | last=Balakrishnan | first=V. | date=12 August 2015 | accessdate=9 March 2018 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309123005/https://cinema.vikatan.com/others/cinema-serials/50885.html | archivedate=9 March 2018 | deadurl=no | ref={{Sfnref|Balakrishnan|2015}}}}
- {{cite web|url=http://www.indolink.com/tamil/cinema/Memories/98/fna/fna1.htm |title=Tamil Cinema History – The Early Days |publisher=Indolink |date=26 February 1998 |accessdate=28 October 2015 |author=Film News Anandan |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028020625/http://www.indolink.com/tamil/cinema/Memories/98/fna/fna1.htm |archivedate=28 October 2015 |deadurl=yes |ref={{Sfnref|Film News Anandan|1998}}}}
- {{cite web|url=http://www.news18.com/news/india/100-years-of-indian-cinema-the-founding-fathers-593752.html |title=100 Years of Indian Cinema: The founding fathers |publisher=CNN-News18 |date=1 March 2013 |accessdate=24 April 2016 |last=Vats |first=Rohit |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20170105085215/http://www.news18.com/news/india/100-years-of-indian-cinema-the-founding-fathers-593752.html |archivedate= 5 January 2017 |deadurl=no |ref={{Sfnref|Vats|2013}}}}
{{Refend}} External links {{Portal bar|Film|India|Tamil cinema}} 10 : 1910s historical films|1910s in Indian cinema|Directorial debut films|Films based on the Mahabharata|Hindu mythological films|Indian black-and-white films|Indian films|Indian historical films|Indian silent films|Lost Indian films |