“Scorched earth”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

In 1336, the defenders of Pilėnai in Lithuania set their castle on fire and committed mass suicide in order to make the attacking Teutonic Order's victory a costly one.

The strategy was widely used in the Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. Prince Mircea I of Wallachia used it against the Ottomans in 1395 and Prince Stephen III of Moldavia scorched the earth in his country as the Ottoman army advanced in 1475 and 1476.

A slighting is the deliberate destruction, partial or complete, of a fortification without opposition. Sometimes, such as during the Wars of Scottish Independence and the English Civil War, the intention was to render the structure unusable as a fortress.{{sfn|Manganiello|2004|p=498}}{{sfn|Lowry|2006|p=29}}{{sfn|Perry|Blackburn|2000|p=321}} In England, during the Middle Ages adulterine (unauthorised) castles if captured by the king would usually be slighted.{{sfn|Muir|1997|p=173}} During the Wars of Scottish Independence, Robert the Bruce adopted a strategy of slighting Scottish castles to prevent them being occupied by the invading English.{{sfn|Perry|Blackburn|2000|p=321}}^[14] A strategy of slighting castles in Palestine was also adopted by the Mamelukes in their wars with the Crusaders.

Early Modern era

Further British use of scorched-earth policies in a war was seen during the 16th century in Ireland, where it was used by English commanders such as Walter Devereux and Richard Bingham.

The Desmond Rebellions are a famous case in Ireland. Much of the province of Munster was laid waste. The poet Edmund Spenser left an account of it:

In 1630, Field-Marshal General Torquato Conti was in command of Imperial forces during the Thirty Years' War. Forced to retreat from the advancing Swedish army of King Gustavus Adolphus, Conti ordered his troops to burn houses, destroy villages and generally cause as much harm to property and people as possible. His actions were remembered thus:^[15]

During the Great Northern War, Peter the Great's Russian forces used scorched-earth tactics to hold back Swedish King Charles XII's campaign towards Moscow.

Wallachian-Ottoman Wars

In 1462, a massive Ottoman army led by Sultan Mehmed II marched into Wallachia. Vlad the Impaler retreated to Transylvania. During his departure, he conducted scorched-earth tactics to ward off Sultan Mehmed II's approach. When the Ottoman forces approached Tirgoviste, they encountered over 20,000 people impaled by the forces of Vlad the Impaler, creating a "forest" of dead or dying bodies on stakes. This atrocious, gut-wrenching sight caused Sultan Mehmed II to withdraw from battle and instead send Radu, Vlad's brother, to fight Vlad the Impaler.

Great Siege of Malta

In early 1565, Grandmaster Jean Parisot de Valette ordered the harvesting of all the crops in Malta, including unripened grain, to deprive the Ottomans of any local food supplies since spies had warned of an imminent Ottoman attack. Furthermore, the Knights poisoned all wells with bitter herbs and dead animals. The Ottomans arrived on 18 May of that year, and the Great Siege of Malta began. The Ottomans managed to capture one fort but were eventually defeated by the Knights, the Maltese militia and a Spanish relief force.

Nine Years' War

In 1688, France attacked the German Palatinate. The German states responded to this by forming an alliance and assembling a sizeable armed force to push the French out of Germany. The French had not prepared for such an eventuality. Realising that the war in Germany was not going to end quickly and that the Rhineland blitz would not be a brief and decisive parade of French glory, Louis XIV and his War Minister Marquis de Louvois resolved upon a scorched-earth policy in the Palatinate, Baden and Württemberg, intent on denying enemy troops local resources and prevent them from invading French territory.^[16] By 20 December 1688 Louvois had selected all the cities, towns, villages and châteaux intended for destruction. On 2 March 1689 Count of Tessé torched Heidelberg; on 8 March Montclar levelled Mannheim. Oppenheim and Worms were finally destroyed on 31 May, followed by Speyer on 1 June, and Bingen on 4 June. In all, French troops burnt over 20 substantial towns as well as numerous villages.^[17]

Mughal-Maratha Wars

Shivaji's son, Sambhaji Maharaj, was detested throughout the Mughal Empire for his scorched-earth tactics until he and his men were captured by Muqarrab Khan and his Mughal Army contingent of 25,000.^[20] On 11 March 1689, a panel of Mughal Qadis indicted and sentenced Sambhaji to death for condoning casual torture, arson, looting, and massacre of the emperor's subjects, but most prominently for giving shelter to Sultan Muhammad Akbar, the fourth son of Aurangzeb, who sought Sambhajiraje's aid in winning the Mughal throne from his emperor father. Sambhaji was particularly condemned for the three days of ravaging committed after the Battle of Burhanpur.^[21]

In the year 1747, the Marathas, led by Raghoji I Bhonsle, began to raid, pillage and annex the territories in Odisha belonging to the Mughal Empire's Nawab of Bengal, Alivardi Khan. The Maratha cavalry numbering 40,000 had sacked the town of Midnapore and set granaries and villages ablaze.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

Nineteenth century

Napoleonic Wars

During the 1810 (third) Napoleonic invasion of Portugal, the Portuguese population retreated towards Lisbon, ordered to destroy all the food supplies the French might capture, forage and shelter in a wide belt across the country. (Although effective food-preserving techniques had recently been invented, they were still not fit for military use because a suitably rugged container had not yet been invented.)^[22] The command was obeyed as a result of French plundering and general ill-treatment of civilians in the previous invasions, the poor, angered people would rather destroy anything that had to be left behind rather than leaving it to the French.

After the Bussaco, Massená's army marched on to Coimbra where much of the city's old university and library were vandalised, houses and furniture were destroyed and the few civilians that did not seek refuge further south were murdered. While there were instances of similar behavior by British soldiers, considering that Portugal was their ally, such crimes were generally investigated, and those found punished. Coimbra's sack made the populace even more determined in leaving nothing and when the French armies reached the Lines of Torres Vedras on the way to Lisbon, French soldiers reported that the country "seemed to empty ahead of them". When Massená reached the city of Viseu, wanting to replenish his armies' dwindling food supplies, none of the inhabitants remained, and all there was to eat were grapes and lemons that, if eaten in large quantities, would be better laxatives than sources of calories. Low morale, hunger, disease, and indiscipline rendered the French Army of Portugal into a much weaker force and compelled their retreat next spring. This method was later recommended to Russia when Napoleon made his move.

In 1812 Czar Alexander I was able to render Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Russia useless by utilizing a scorched-earth retreat method, similar to that made by the Portuguese.^[23] As Russian forces withdrew from the advancing French army, they burned the countryside (and, allegedly, Moscow^[24]) over which they passed, leaving nothing of value for the pursuing French army. Encountering only desolate and useless land Napoleon's Grand Army was prevented from using its accustomed doctrine of living off the lands it conquered. Pushing relentlessly on despite dwindling numbers, the Grand Army met with disaster as the invasion progressed. Napoleon's army arrived in a virtually abandoned Moscow, which was a tattered starving shell of its former self that was largely due to the use of scorched-earth tactics by retreating Russians. Having essentially conquered nothing, Napoleon's troops retreated, and again the scorched-earth policy came into effect because even though some large supply dumps had been established on the advance, the route between these had both been scorched and marched over once already, so the French army starved as it marched along the resource-depleted invasion route.^[25]

South American War of Independence

In August 1812, Argentine General Manuel Belgrano led the Jujuy Exodus, a massive forced displacement of people from the present-day Jujuy and Salta provinces to the south. The Jujuy Exodus was conducted by the patriot forces of the Army of the North that were battling a Royalist army.

Belgrano, faced with the prospect of total defeat and territorial loss, ordered all people to pack their necessities, including food and furniture, and follow him, in carriages or on foot, together with whatever cattle and beasts of burden could endure the journey. The rest (houses, crops, food stocks, and also any objects made of iron) was to be burned, so as to deprive the loyalists of resources, following a strict scorched-earth policy. On 29 July 1812, Belgrano asked the people of Jujuy to "show their heroism" and join the march of the army under his command "if, as you assure, you want to be free". The punishment for ignoring the order was execution and the destruction of the defector's properties. Belgrano labored to win the support of the populace and later reported that most of the people had willingly followed him without the need of force.

The exodus started on 23 August and gathered people from Jujuy and Salta; people travelled south about 250 km, finally arriving at the banks of the Pasaje River, in the province of Tucumán, on the early hours of 29 August. The Patriots applied a scorched-earth policy so the Spaniards advanced into a wasteland. Belgrano’s army destroyed everything that could provide shelter or be useful to the Royalists.^[26]

Greek War of Independence

In 1827, Ibrahim Pasha led an Ottoman-Egyptian combined force in a campaign to crush Greek revolutionaries in the Peloponnese. In response to Greek guerrilla attacks on his forces in the Peloponnese, Ibrahim launched a scorched earth campaign which threatened the population with starvation and deported many civilians into slavery in Egypt. He also allegedly planned to bring in Arab settlers, in order to replace the Greek population. The fires of burning villages and fields were clearly visible from Allied ships standing offshore. A British landing party reported that the population of Messinia was close to mass starvation.^[27] Ibrahim's scorched-earth policy caused much outrage in Europe, being one of the reasons the Great Powers (Great Britain, France and Russia) decisively intervened against him in the Battle of Navarino.

Philippine-American War

In the hunt for the Guerrilla General Emilio Aguinaldo American troops also poisoned water wells to try to force out the Filipino rebels.^[30]

American Civil War

In the American Civil War, Union forces under Sheridan and Sherman used the policy widely.^[31] General Sherman utilized this policy during his March to the Sea.

Sherman's tactics were an attempt to destroy the enemy's will and logistics through burning or destroying crops or other resources that might be used for the Confederate force. The next century of "later generations of American war leaders would use in World War II, Korea, Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan."^[32] During Sherman's campaign, his "men piled all deed books in front of the courthouse and burned them. The logic was that the big plantations would not be able to prove land ownership. These actions are the bane of Georgia and South Carolina genealogists.”^[33] Another instance in his campaign was when in "for thirty-six days that army moved through Georgia, with very little opposition, pillaging the countryside. It was a sort of military promenade, requiring very little military skill in the performance, and as little personal prowess, as well trained union troops were deployed against defenseless citizens."^[34]

Another event, in response to Quantrill's raid on Lawrence, Kansas, and the many civilian casualties including killing 180 men, Brigadier General Thomas Ewing Jr., Sherman's brother-in-law, issued U.S. Army General Order No. 11 (1863) to order the near-total evacuation of three and a half counties in western Missouri, south of Kansas City, which were subsequently looted and burned by U.S. Army troops.^[35] Under Sherman's overall direction, General Sheridan followed this policy in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and subsequently in the Indian Wars of the Great Plains.

When General Grant's forces broke through Richmond's defenses, Jefferson Davis ordered the destruction of Richmond's militarily significant supplies; the resulting conflagration destroyed many – mainly commercial – buildings and some Southern warships docked on the James River. Civilians in panic were forced to escape the fires started by the Confederates.

Native American wars

During the wars with Native American tribes of the American West, under James Carleton's direction, Kit Carson instituted a scorched-earth policy, burning Navajo fields and homes, and stealing or killing their livestock. He was aided by other Indian tribes with long-standing enmity toward the Navajos, chiefly the Utes. The Navajo were forced to surrender due to the destruction of their livestock and food supplies. In the spring of 1864, 8,000 Navajo men, women and children were forced to march 300 miles to Fort Sumner, New Mexico. Navajos call this "The Long Walk." Many died along the way or during the next four years of their internment.

A military expedition led by U.S. Army Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie was sent to the Texas Panhandle and Oklahoma Territory Panhandle area in 1874 to remove the Indians to reservations in Oklahoma. The Mackenzie expedition captured about 1,200 of the Indians' horses, drove them into Tule Canyon, and shot them all. Denied their main source of livelihood and demoralized, the Comanche and Kiowa abandoned the area (see Palo Duro Canyon).

Boer War

The existence of the concentration camps was exposed by Emily Hobhouse, who toured the camps and began petitioning the British government to change its policy.^[38]^[39] In an attempt to counter Hobhouse's activism, the British commissioned the Fawcett Commission, that confirmed Hobhouse's findings.^[40] The British later perceived the concentration camps as a humanitarian measure, to care for displaced persons until the war was ended, in response to the Hobhouse and Fawcett reports. Negligence by the British, lack of planning and supplies and overcrowding led to much loss of life.^[41] A decade after the war P.L.A. Goldman officially determined that 27,927 Boers died in the concentration camps: 26,251 women and children (of whom more than 22,000 were under the age of 16), and 1,676 men over the age of 16, of whom 1,421 were aged persons.^[42]

Other

In 1868, Tūhoe sheltered the Māori leader Te Kooti, and for this were subjected to a scorched-earth policy, in which their crops and buildings were destroyed and their people of fighting age were captured.

Twentieth century

World War I

In World War I, Imperial Russian army forces created a zone of destruction by using a large-scale scorched-earth strategy during their retreat from the German army in the summer/autumn of 1915. The Russian troops, retreating along a front of more than 600 miles, destroyed anything that might be of use to their enemy, including crops, houses, railways and entire cities. They also forcibly removed huge numbers of people. In pushing the Russians back to their homeland, the German army gained a large area of territory from the Russian Empire (in an area that is today Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia and Lithuania).^[43]

On 24 February 1917, the German army made a strategic scorched-earth withdrawal from the Somme battlefield to the prepared fortifications of the Hindenburg Line, thereby shortening the front line they had to occupy. Since a scorched-earth campaign requires that there be a war of movement, World War I provided little opportunity in general for this policy as it was a stalemated war fought mostly in the same concentrated area for its entire duration.

Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)

During the Greco-Turkish War (1919–22), the retreating Greek army carried out a scorched-earth policy while fleeing from Anatolia during the final phase of the war.{{Sfn | Fisher | 1969 | p = 386}} Historian of the Middle East, Sydney Nettleton Fisher wrote that: "The Greek army in retreat pursued a burned-earth policy and committed every known outrage against defenceless Turkish villagers in its path."{{Sfn | Fisher | 1969 | p = 386}} Norman M. Naimark noted that "the Greek retreat was even more devastating for the local population than the occupation".{{Sfn | Naimark | 2002 | p = [{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=L-QLXnX16kAC |page=46 }} 46]}}

Second Sino-Japanese War

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Imperial Japanese Army had a scorched-earth policy, known as "Three Alls Policy". Due to the Japanese scorched-earth policy, immense environmental and infrastructure damage have been recorded. Additionally, it contributed to the complete destruction of entire villages and partial destruction of entire cities like Chongqing or Nanjing.

The Chinese National Revolutionary Army destroyed dams and levees in an attempt to flood the land to slow down the advancement of Japanese soldiers, further adding to the environmental impact. This policy resulted in the 1938 Huang He flood.

World War II

At the start of the Russo-Finnish Winter War, the Finns used the tactic in the vicinity of the border in order to deprive the invading Soviets provisions and shelter, for the forthcoming cold winter. In some cases fighting took place in areas familiar to the actual Finnish soldiers fighting it. There were accounts of soldiers burning down their very own homes and parishes. One of the burned parishes was Suomussalmi.

When Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, many district governments took the initiative to begin a 'partial' scorched-earth policy in order to deny the invaders access to electrical, telecommunications, rail, and industrial resources. Parts of the telegraph network were destroyed, some rail and road bridges were blown up, most electrical generators were sabotaged through the removal of key components, and many mineshafts were collapsed. {{citation needed|reason=If Stalin ordered this there should be a clear source for his order as they are public by now|date=October 2015}} The process was repeated later in the war by the German forces of Army Group North and Erich von Manstein's Army Group Don, which stole crops, destroyed farms, and razed settlements of at least city size and smaller during several military operations. The rationale for this policy was that it would slow pursuing Soviet forces by forcing them to save their own civilians, though in Manstein's postwar memoirs at the very least the policy was justified as a means of preventing the Soviets from stealing the food and shelter from their own civilians. The best-known victims of the German scorched-earth policy were the people of the historic city of Novgorod, whose hometown was razed during the Winter of 1944 to cover Army Group North's retreat from Leningrad.

Near the end of the Summer of 1944, Finland, which had made a separate peace with the Allies, was required to evict the German forces, which had been fighting against the Soviets alongside Finnish troops in the Northern part of the country. The Finnish forces, under the leadership of general Hjalmar Siilasvuo, struck aggressively in August 1944 by making a landfall at Tornio. This accelerated the German retreat, and by November 1944 the Germans had left most of northern Finland. The German forces, forced to retreat due to an overall strategic situation, covered their retreat towards Norway by devastating large areas of northern Finland using scorched-earth strategy. More than one-third of the dwellings in the area were destroyed, and the provincial capital Rovaniemi was burned to the ground. All but two bridges in Lapland Province were blown up and all roads were mined.^[44] In Northern Norway which was at the same time invaded by Soviet forces in pursuit of the retreating German army in 1944, the Germans also undertook a scorched-earth policy, destroying every building that could offer shelter and thus interposing a belt of "scorched earth" between themselves and the allies.^[45]

In 1945, Adolf Hitler ordered his minister of armaments Albert Speer to carry out a nationwide scorched-earth policy, in what became known as the Nero Decree. Speer, who was looking to the future, actively resisted the order, just as he had earlier refused Hitler's command to destroy French industry when the Wehrmacht was being driven out of France and he managed to continue doing so even after Hitler became aware of his actions.^[46]

During the Second World War the railroad plough was used in Germany, Czechoslovakia and other countries, denying the enemy's use of railroads by partially destroying them while retreating.

Malayan Emergency

Britain was the first nation to employ herbicides and defoliants (chiefly Agent Orange) to destroy the crops and bushes of communist insurgents in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s. The intent was to prevent the insurgents from using them as a cover to ambush passing convoys of British troops and to destroy the peasants' ability to support them.

Goa War

In response to India's invasion on the 451 year old Portuguese Colony of Goa in December 1961 during the Annexation of Portuguese India, orders delivered from the Portuguese President called for a scorched-earth policy – that Goa was to be destroyed before it was given up to the Indians.^[47]

However, despite his orders from Lisbon, Governor General Manuel António Vassalo e Silva took stock of the numerical superiority of the Indian troops, as well as the food and ammunition supplies available to his forces and took the decision to surrender. He later described his orders to destroy Goa as "um sacrifício inútil" (a useless sacrifice).

Vietnam War

The U.S. employed Agent Orange, as a part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, to destroy crops and foliage in order to expose possible enemy hideouts during the Vietnam War. Agent Blue was used on rice fields to deny food to the Vietcong.

Gulf War

During the Gulf War in 1990 when Iraqi forces were driven out of Kuwait, they set more than 600 Kuwaiti oil wells on fire.^[48] This was done as part of a scorched-earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after invading the country but being driven out by Coalition military forces (see Gulf War). The fires were started between January to February 1991 and the last one was extinguished by November 1991.^[49]

Central America

Efraín Ríos Montt utilized this method in the Guatemalan highlands in 1981-1982, though scorched-earth tactics were first used under the previous president Romeo Lucas García. Upon entering office, Ríos Montt implemented a new counterinsurgency strategy that called for the use of scorched earth to combat the Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca rebellion, known as Plan Victoria 82 or, more commonly, by the nickname of the rural pacification elements of this strategy – Fusiles y Frijoles (Bullets and Beans).^[50] Ríos Montt's policies resulted in the death of thousands (most of them indigenous Mayans).

Southeast Asia

The Indonesian military used this method when the British forces in Bandung during Indonesian National Revolution gave an ultimatum for the Indonesian combatants to leave the city. In response, the southern part of Bandung was deliberately burned down in an act of defiance as the combatants left the city on 24 March 1946. This event is known as the Bandung Sea of Fire or "Bandung Lautan Api".^[51]{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

The Indonesian military and pro-Indonesia militias also used this method in their Timor-Leste Scorched Earth campaign around the time of East Timor's referendum for independence in 1999.

Yugoslav Wars

The method was used during the Yugoslav Wars, such as against the Serbs in Krajina by the Croatian Army,^[52]^[53] and by Serbian paramilitary groups.^[54]

21st century

Darfur region of Sudan

The Sudanese government has used scorched earth as a military strategy in Darfur.

Sri Lankan civil war

During the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 the United Nations Regional Information Centre (UNRIC) has accused the Sri Lankan government of utilizing scorched-earth tactics.^[55]^[56]^[57]

Libyan civil war

During the 2011 Libyan civil war, forces loyal to Moammar Gadhafi planted a large number of landmines within the petroleum port of Brega to prevent advancing rebel forces from utilizing the port facilities.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} Additionally Libyan rebel forces practiced scorched-earth policies when they completely demolished and refused to rebuild critical infrastructure{{Examples|date=October 2013}} in towns and cities formerly loyal to Moammar Gadhafi such as Sirte and Tawargha.^[58]

Syrian civil war

During the Syrian civil war, forces loyal to Bashar al-Assad based in northern Syria burnt large swathes of trees and forests which were being used as cover by Free Syrian Army fighters who hid among the trees when not in combat.^[59] The forests were mostly burnt in northern parts of the provinces of Aleppo, Idlib, and Latakia, with the fires occasionally spreading across the border into Turkey.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

At first, the forests were burnt by premeditated arson, but once the Assad loyalists withdrew from those areas, they relied on artillery fire to burn the forests. Environmental damage is said to take up to 80 years for full recovery.{{citation needed|date=May 2013}}

See also

References

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13. ^Quoted in The Steel Bonnets by George MacDonald Fraser.
14. ^Traquar, Peter Freedom's Sword p. 159
15. ^The history of the Thirty Years' War in Germany by Friedrich Schiller (translated by Christoph Martin Wieland, printed for W. Miller, 1799)
16. ^Childs (1991), p. 17.
17. ^Lynn, p. 198.
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23. ^{{Citation needed|date=August 2013|reason = Chandler's "Campaigns of Napoleon" (the source) makes no explicit reference to a scorched-earth policy. Which is not to say that it did happen on a local scale.}}
24. ^{{Cite book|title = The Campaigns of Napoleon.|last = Chandler|first = David|year = 1966|page = 813}}
25. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.napoleon-series.org/military/battles/1812/Russia/c_bridges.html |title=Rivers and the Destruction of Napoleon's Grand Army |publisher=napoleon-series.org}}
26. ^{{cite web |url=http://balagan.info/battle-of-tucuman-24-25-september-1812 |title=Battle of Tucuman 24–25 September 1812 |publisher=balagan.info|date=2015-04-04 }}
27. ^Report to Codrington from Capt Hamilton (HMS Cambrian), reproduced in James (1837) VI.476
28. ^{{cite journal |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1683&dat=20040208&id=gbIaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GEUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5222,6070988 | author=Guillermo, Emil | title= A first taste of empire| journal= Milwaukee Journal Sentinel | date= February 8, 2004| volume= | issue= | pages= 03J }}
29. ^{{cite journal |first=John M. |last=Gates |url=http://www3.wooster.edu/History/jgates/book-ch3.html |title=War-Related Deaths in the Philippines, 1898–1902 |journal=Pacific Historical Review |volume=53 |issue=3 |year=1984 |pages=367–378 |jstor=3639234 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629045949/http://www3.wooster.edu/History/jgates/book-ch3.html |archivedate=2014-06-29 |df= }}
30. ^The President and the Assassin, Scott Miller
31. ^Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant, Chapter XXV: "supplies within the reach of Confederate armies I regarded as much contraband as arms or ordnance stores. Their destruction was accomplished without bloodshed and tended to the same result as the destruction of armies. I continued this policy to the close of the war. Promiscuous pillaging, however, was discouraged and punished. Instructions were always given to take provisions and forage under the direction of commissioned officers who should give receipts to owners, if at home, and turn the property over to officers of the quartermaster or commissary departments to be issued as if furnished from our Northern depots. But much was destroyed without receipts to owners, when it could not be brought within our lines and would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end."
32. ^• https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/scorched-earth
33. ^• http://sciway3.net/clark/civilwar/march.html
34. ^• http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/shermans-march-to-the-sea.htm
35. ^{{cite journal |last1= Pringle |first1=Heather |date=April 2010 |title= DIGGING THE SCORCHED EARTH |journal=Archaeology |volume= 63|issue=2 |pages=20–25 }}
36. ^{{Cite journal|title = Draining the Sea by Filling the Graves: Investigating the Effectiveness of Indiscriminate Violence as a Counterinsurgency Strategy|journal = Civil Wars|date = 2007-12-01|issn = 1369-8249|pages = 420–444|volume = 9|issue = 4|doi = 10.1080/13698240701699631|first = Alexander B.|last = Downes}}
37. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/governence-projects/womens-struggle/anglo-war.htm |title=SAHO: The Anglo-Boer War |accessdate=2015-03-15 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821192712/http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/governence-projects/womens-struggle/anglo-war.htm |archivedate=August 21, 2008 |df= |date=2011-03-21 }}
38. ^{{cite book |last=Hobhouse |first=E. |year=1901 |title=Report of a visit to the camps of women and children in the Cape and Orange River Colonies |location=London |publisher=Friars Printing Association Ltd. }}
39. ^{{cite book |last=Hobhouse |first=E. |year=1907 |title=The Brunt of War and Where it Fell |publisher=Portrayer Publishers |location=London }}
40. ^{{cite book |last=Fawcett |first=M. H. |year=1901 |title=The Concentration Camps in South Africa |location=London |publisher=Westminster Gazette }}
41. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/ptb/wvw/War2/Pretorius%20paper.pdf |title=The Boer women and children |date= |accessdate=2011-03-23}}
42. ^{{cite web |url=http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/SOUTH-AFRICA/1999-01/0917021014 |title=RootsWeb: South-Africa-L Re: Boer War Records |publisher=Archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com |date=1999-01-22 |accessdate=2011-03-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222100233/http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/SOUTH-AFRICA/1999-01/0917021014 |archivedate=2008-12-22 |df= }}
43. ^{{cite book|last=Hochschild|first=Adam|title=To End All Wars – a story of loyalty and rebellion 1914-1918|year=2011|publisher=Mariner Books, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|location=Boston & New York|isbn=978-0-547-75031-6|page=156}}
44. ^See Lapland War
45. ^{{cite book |last=Derry |first=T. K. |title=A History of Modern Norway: 1814–1972 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-19-822503-4}}
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47. ^{{Cite web |url=http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/church.html |title=The Church in Goa |publisher=Goacom.com |date= |accessdate=9 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402200720/http://www.goacom.com/culture/history/church.html |archivedate=2 April 2012 |df= }}
48. ^"The Economic and Environmental Impact of the Gulf War on Kuwait and the Persian Gulf," {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101219043510/http://www1.american.edu/ted/kuwait.htm |date=2010-12-19 }} Inventory of Conflict and Environment Cases, published by American University, Washington (DC), U.S.
49. ^{{cite web|url=http://earthshots.usgs.gov/Iraq/Iraqtext|title="Iraq and Kuwait: 1972, 1990, 1991, 1997." Earthshots: Satellite Images of Environmental Change|last=Wellman|first=Robert Campbell|date=14 February 1999|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|accessdate=27 July 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021028200910/http://earthshots.usgs.gov/Iraq/Iraqtext|archivedate=28 October 2002|df=}}
50. ^{{Cite book|title = The Guatemalan military project: a violence called democracy|last = Schirmer|first = Jennifer|publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press|year = 1998|isbn = |location = |pages = }}
51. ^{{cite journal |author=Sitaresmi, Ratnayu |title=Social History of The Bandung Lautan Api (Bandung Sea of Fire), 24 March 1946 |url=http://www.bandungheritage.org/images/stories/dokumen/bandung_sea_of_fire.pdf |accessdate=22 August 2008 }}
52. ^{{cite book|author1=David A. Dyker|author2=Ivan Vejvoda|title=Yugoslavia and After: A Study in Fragmentation, Despair and Rebirth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=flmPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-89135-2|pages=113–}}
53. ^{{cite book|author=A. Pavkovic|title=The Fragmentation of Yugoslavia: Nationalism and War in the Balkans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u3paCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA154|date=2000|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-28584-2|pages=154–}}
54. ^{{cite book|author=Paul Mojzes|title=Yugoslavian Inferno: Ethnoreligious Warfare in the Balkans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkbqDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA166|date=2016|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4742-8838-5|pages=166–}}
55. ^{{cite news| url=http://www.unric.org/en/sri-lanka/27123-why-sri-lanka-matters- | location=London | work=UNRIC | title= Why Sri Lanka matters}}
56. ^{{cite web|author=Steve Finch, The Diplomat |url=http://thediplomat.com/2013/07/30/in-sri-lanka-will-mass-grave-case-be-buried/ |title=In Sri Lanka, Will Mass Grave Case Be Buried? |publisher=The Diplomat |date= |accessdate=2014-02-24}}
57. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/may/17/sri-lanka-tamil-inquiry | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Simon | last=Tisdall | title=Sri Lanka faces new calls for Tamil inquiry | date=2010-05-17}}
58. ^{{Youtube|title=Lawless Land – Libya |id=hioSFBCYZUI&list=LPypkHZ-JJm8I }}, Journeyman Pictures, Published on Apr 23, 2012
59. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mV6apaqmnPw |title=Syria's forests pay a heavy price |publisher=YouTube |date=2014-01-05 |accessdate=2014-02-24}}

Ancient times

Roman era

Middle Ages

Early Middle Ages

Harrying of the North

High and Late Middle Ages