1. Overview

2. Levee Contractors

3. Workers Identity

4. NAACP Investigations

5. References

Levee camps constructed from the early 1800's to the 1930's were originally initiated to create a system of man made levees along the Mississippi river after an increase in flooding. Before 1879 levees were built by a combination of African American convicted criminals, slaves, and racially mixed immigrant laborers. Levee camps underwent racial and gender discrimination throughout their course and helped to construct new identities specifically among black laborers.

Overview

On June 28th, 1879 the United States Congress established the Mississippi River Commission in order to address increasing concerns over the navigation and flood control of the Mississippi River. This Commission increased the number of levee camps from Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico to speed up levee construction^[1]. This was an attempt to protect riverside populations and prevent overflow in order maximize land availability along the Mississippi.^[2] The levee camp workforce primarily consisted of African American plantation sharecroppers from the Delta area. These workers were used because of their experience with mule driving, work ethic, and the fact that they could be exploited for lower wages^[3]. Due to dangerous conditions during flooding, convicted prisoners also continued to build the levees until the early 1900's.

The laborers used mule powered machinery, scrapers, and wheelbarrows to construct the tightly packed slopes of dirt.^[1] The levee camp season generally occurred most often from late fall to early winter when the Mississippi water levels were lowest. Approximately one third of the population of the camps consisted of black women, who were employed as cooks or prostitutes for the workers.^[3] They also contained livestock including cows, horses, mules, and pigs to run machinery and provide sustenance for the workers.^[2] Due to the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, control of the camps shifted to the Mississippi Flood Control Act^[4], as government effort was placed more on flood relief.^[5]

Levee Contractors

Levee contractors ran their camps with strong white supremacists beliefs, using their power to exploit black workers. The contractors publicly beat, whipped, and humiliated the workers in order to strip them of their masculinity and sense of authority. They also encouraged and organized after hour activities such as gambling, prostitution, and drinking in order to degrade the image and authenticity of the workers and to prevent them from receiving full wages. Many workers had to take out loans with the contractors, which were offered at steep interest rates.^[3] The contractors were also purposely inconsistent with their pay periods to force workers to take out more loans at the camp commissaries in order to be able to afford basic necessities.

This discrimination is also evident in how living and working conditions within the camps greatly varied between Blacks and Whites. While white workers slept in boarding houses, unsanitary conditions became dangerous for the black workers who slept in tents, sometimes very close to livestock^[2]. Camp members experienced constant outbreaks of life threatening diseases like malaria and smallpox^[1]. Workers went through 12-16 hour work days and were forced to continue no matter the weather conditions, which were quite brutal during the winter.^[2]At an average wage of one to two dollars a day, black workers were paid 1.5 dollars less than the average white worker^[6].

Workers Identity

The social structure of the levee camps caused a shift in gender identity among black male workers, who adopted a "hyper masculine" persona. Black men had been demeaned in the social structure of the south as they were obligatorily dependent on plantation owners^[4]. Conversely, black women were able to make cash wages through their marketable skills.

Because levee construction was vitally important, levee camps provided an opportunity for black laborers to also make cash wages and regain a sense of usefulness. Black workers were particularly likely to participate in financially draining after hour activities, such as gambling and drinking. This was due to the fact that they gained a new sense of autonomy by being able to control the pleasures of their own bodies, something previously denied them.^[3] African American Blues and folk songs based on camp life helped to create a masculine image by indicating that only the toughest men were able to survive harsh treatment from the contractors, violence between themselves, and the activities that took place during after hours.^[3]

NAACP Investigations

Rumors regarding discrimination and the inadequate living conditions caused the NAACP to complete an investigation on the levee camps. In December of 1932 Roy Wilkins and George Schuyler spent three weeks in the Mississippi levee camps disguised as unskilled workers. Wilkins published an article "Mississippi River Slavery-1933" in the NAACP Crisis Magazine which described their experiences and concerns for the levee workers.^[6] These observations caused the NAACP to strain greater awareness of the exploitation of black laborers in the south.

References

• Van hanegem
• Vanhanen II
• Vanhankaupunginselkä
• Van Harvey
• Van Hasselt's sunbird
• Van Hatfield
• Van Hauen Pass
• Vanha Ylioppilastalo
• Van Heeckeren
• Van Heerden
• Van heerden
• Van Helmont
• Van helsing
• Van Helsing: Beneath the Rue Morgue
• Van Helsing: From Beneath the Rue Morgue
• Van Helsing: From Beneath The Rue Morgue
• Van Helsing's Curse
• Van Helsing (soundtrack)
• Van Hengel
• Van Herk
• Van Heuraet
• Van Heuraët
• Van Hiele levels
• Van Hise Rock
• Van Hoa