| 词条 | Surface rupture |
| 释义 |
Lack of surface ruptureNot every earthquake results in surface rupture, particularly for smaller and deeper earthquakes.[1]. In some cases, however, the lack of surface effects is because the fault that moved does not reach the surface. For example, the 1994 Northridge earthquake had a moment magnitude of 6.7, caused major damage in the Los Angeles area, occurred at {{convert|18.2|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} below the Earth's surface, but did not cause surface rupture, because it was a blind thrust earthquake.[3] Where surface rupture occursSurface ruptures commonly occur on pre-existing faults. Only rarely are earthquakes (and surface ruptures) associated with faulting on entirely new fault structures.[4] There is shallow hypocenter, and large fracture energy on the asperities,[5] the asperity shallower than {{convert|5|km|mi}}. Examples of such earthquakes are San Fernando earthquake, Tabas earthquake, and Chi-Chi earthquake.[6] In surface rupture earthquakes, the large slips of land are concentrated in the shallow parts of the fault.[7] And, notably, permanent ground displacements which are measureable can be produced by shallow earthquakes, of magnitude M5 and greater.[8] Types of surface ruptureThe form that surface rupturing takes depends on two things: the nature of the material at the surface and the type of fault movement. Effect of surface lithologyWhere there are thick superficial deposits overlying the trace of the faults the resulting surface effects are typically more discontinuous. Where there is little or no superficial deposits the surface rupture is generally continuous, except where the earthquake rupture affects more than one fault, which can lead to complex patterns of surface faulting, such as in the 1992 Landers earthquake.[9] Normal faultingSurface ruptures associated with normal faults are typically simple fault scarps. Where there are significant superficial deposits, sections with more oblique faulting may from sets of en-echelon scarp segments. Antithetic faults may also develop giving rise to surface grabens. Reverse faultingReverse faulting (or particularly thrust faulting) is associated with more complex surface rupture patterns as the protruding unsupported part of the hanging-wall of the fault is liable to collapse. In addition there may be surface folding and back-thrust development. Strike-slip faultingStrike-slip faults are associated with dominantly horizontal movement, leading to relatively simple linear zones of surface rupture where the fault is a simple planar structure. However, many strike-slip faults are formed of overlapping segments, leading to complex zones of normal or reverse faulting depending on the nature of the overlap. Additionally, where there are thick superficial deposits, the rupture typically appears as a set of en-echelon faults.[10] MitigationTo retrofit a house to survive surface rupture requires engineered design by geotechnical, and structural or civil engineers. This can be quite expensive.[4] Examples, with their extent
|150|km|mi}}, [11]
See also
References1. ^1 {{cite web | access-date=2018-10-19 | url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-surface-faulting-or-surface-rupture-earthquake?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products | title=What is Surface Rupture | website=USGS}} 2. ^{{Cite web |url=http://www.seismicresilience.org.nz/topics/seismic-science-and-site-influences/earthquake-hazards/surface-rupture/ |title=Surface rupture can be caused by vertical or horizontal displacement |date=2018-10-19}} 3. ^{{cite web|url=http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/info/nr10/|title=USGS Northridge Earthquake 10th Anniversary|publisher=|accessdate=13 April 2016}} 4. ^1 2 {{Cite web |url=https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/Prepare-Your-House-Earthquake-Risk/Geologic-Hazards/Surface-Rupture |title=Surface Rupture}} 5. ^{{cite web | url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article-abstract/98/3/1147/341883/surface-rupturing-and-buried-dynamic-rupture | title=Surface Rupturing and Buried Dynamic-Rupture Models Calibrated with Statistical Observations of Past Earthquakes | publisher=pubs.geoscienceworld.org | accessdate=28 October 2018 | author=Dalguer, Luis A.; Miyake, Hiroe; Day, Steven M.; Irikura, Kojiro}} 6. ^{{cite web | url=http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/wcee/article/WCEE2012_1629.pdf | title=Generation Mechanism of Surface and Buried Faults Considering the Effect of Plasticity in a Shallow Crust Structure | publisher=iitk.ac.in | work=Generation Mechanism of Surface and Buried Faults Considering the Effect of Plasticity in a Shallow Crust Structure | accessdate=31 October 2018 | author=Wada, K.; Goto, H.}} 7. ^{{cite web | url=https://www.terrapub.co.jp/journals/EPS/pdf/2004/5601/56010003.pdf | title=Differences in ground motion and fault rupture process between the surface and buried rupture earthquakes | publisher=Earth Planets Space | date=14 March 2004 | accessdate=26 October 2018}} 8. ^{{Cite web |url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/eqproc/grdmotion.php |title=Earthquake Processes and Effects |website=earthquake.usgs.gov}} 9. ^{{Cite journal |last=Zachariesen J. |last2=Sieh K. |year=1995 |title=The transfer of slip between two en echelon strike-slip faults: A case study from the 1992 Landers earthquake, southern California |url=https://earthobservatory.sg/files/publications/pdf/The%20transfer%20of%20slip%20between%20two%20en%20echelon%20strike-slip%20faults.pdf |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=100 |issue=B8 |pages=15,281–15,301 |doi=10.1029/95JB00918}} 10. ^{{Cite journal |last=Tchalenko J.S. |last2=Ambraseys N.N. |year=1970 |title=Structural Analysis of the Dasht-e Bayaz (Iran) Earthquake Fractures |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/81/1/41/6730 |journal=GSA Bulletin |volume=81 |issue=1 |pages=41–60 |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1970)81[41:SAOTDB]2.0.CO;2}} 11. ^{{cite journal|last=Reilinger|first=R.E.|author2=Ergintav S.|author3=Bürgmann R.|author4=McClusky S.|author5=Lenk O.|author6=Barka A.|author7=Gurkan O.|author8=Hearn L.|author9=Feigl K.L.|author10=Cakmak R.|author11= Aktug B.|author12=Ozener H.|author13=Töksoz M.N.|last-author-amp=yes|year=2000|title=Coseismic and Postseismic Fault Slip for the 17 August 1999, M = 7.5, Izmit, Turkey Earthquake|journal=Science|publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science|volume=289|issue=5484|pages=1519–1524|url=ftp://www.ncedc.org/outgoing/burgmann/REPRINTS/Reilinger_SCIENCE2000.pdf|doi=10.1126/science.289.5484.1519|bibcode=2000Sci...289.1519R}} External links and references
3 : Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation|Seismology|Geological hazards |
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