| 词条 | Brest, France | ||||||
| 释义 |
| name = Brest | commune status = Subprefecture and commune | image = Brest - Le Château - PA00089847 - 011.JPG | caption = A view of the Tour Tanguy with the Château de Brest in the background. | image flag = Brest_flag.jpg | image coat of arms = Blason ville fr Brest (Finistere).svg | coordinates = {{coord|48.39|-4.49|format=dms|display=inline,title}} | arrondissement = Brest |canton = Brest-1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 | INSEE = 29019 | postal code = 29200 | mayor = François Cuillandre | party = PS | term = 2014–2020 | intercommunality = Brest Métropole | elevation m = 34 | elevation min m = 0 | elevation max m = 103 | area km2 = 49.51 | population = 139342 | population date = 2016 | website = Official website }} Brest ({{IPA-fr|bʁɛst|-|Fr-Brest.ogg}};[1] {{IPA-br|bʀest|Breton:}}[2]) is a city in the Finistère département in Brittany. Located in a sheltered position not far from the western tip of the peninsula, and the western extremity of metropolitan France, Brest is an important harbour and the second French military port after Toulon. The city is located on the western edge of continental Europe. With 142,722 inhabitants in a 2007 census, Brest is at the centre of Western Brittany's largest metropolitan area (with a population of 300,300 in total), ranking third behind only Nantes and Rennes in the whole of historic Brittany, and the 19th most populous city in France; moreover, Brest provides services to the one million inhabitants of Western Brittany.[3] Although Brest is by far the largest city in Finistère, the préfecture (regional capital) of the department is the much smaller Quimper. During the Middle Ages, the history of Brest was the history of its castle. Then Richelieu made it a military harbour. Brest grew around its arsenal until the second part of the 20th century. Heavily damaged by the Allies' bombing raids during World War II, the city centre was completely rebuilt after the war. At the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, the deindustrialization of the city was followed by the development of the service sector. Nowadays, Brest is an important university town with 23,000 students.[4] Besides a multidisciplinary university, the University of Western Brittany, Brest and its surrounding area possess several prestigious French elite schools such as École Navale (the French Naval Academy), Télécom Bretagne and the Superior National School of Advanced Techniques of Brittany (ENSTA Bretagne, formerly ENSIETA). Brest is also an important research centre, mainly focused on the sea, with among others the largest Ifremer (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea) centre, le Cedre (Centre of Documentation, Research and Experimentation on Accidental Water Pollution) and the French Polar Institute. Brest's history has always been linked to the sea: the Académie de Marine (Naval Academy) was founded in 1752 in this city. The aircraft carrier {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Charles de Gaulle||2}} was built there. Every four years, Brest hosts the international festival of the sea, boats and sailors: it is a meeting of old riggings from around the world (Les Tonnerres de Brest). History{{see also|Timeline of Brest, France}}{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2011}}The name of the town is first recorded as Bresta; it may derive from *brigs, a Celtic word for "hill."[5][6] Nothing definite is known of Brest before about 1240 {{Dubious|date=August 2011}}, when a count of Léon ceded it to John I, Duke of Brittany. In 1342, John IV, Duke of Brittany, surrendered Brest to the English, in whose possession it was to remain until 1397. The importance of Brest in medieval times was great enough to give rise to the saying, "He is not the Duke of Brittany who is not the Lord of Brest." With the marriage of Francis I of France to Claude, the daughter of Anne of Brittany, the definitive overlordship of Brest – together with the rest of the duchy – passed to the French crown. The advantages of Brest's situation as a seaport town were first recognized by Cardinal Richelieu, who in 1631 constructed a harbour with wooden wharves. This soon became a base for the French Navy. Jean-Baptiste Colbert, finance minister under Louis XIV, rebuilt the wharves in masonry and otherwise improved the harbour. Fortifications by Vauban (1633–1707) followed in 1680–1688. These fortifications, and with them the naval importance of the town, were to continue to develop throughout the 18th century. In 1694, an English squadron under Lord Berkeley was soundly defeated in its attack on Brest. In 1917, during the First World War, Brest was used as the disembarking port for many of the troops coming from the United States. Thousands of such men came through the port on their way to the front lines. The United States Navy established a naval air station on 13 February 1918 to operate seaplanes. The base closed shortly after the Armistice of 11 November 1918.[7] In the Second World War, the Germans maintained a large U-boat submarine base at Brest. Despite being within range of RAF bombers, it was also a base for some of the German surface fleet, giving repair facilities and direct access to the Atlantic Ocean. For much of 1941, {{ship|German battleship|Scharnhorst||2}}, {{ship|German battleship|Gneisenau||2}} and {{ship|German cruiser|Prinz Eugen||2}} were under repair in the dockyards. The repair yard facilities for both submarines and surface vessels were staffed by both German and French workers, with the latter forming the major part of the workforce; huge reliance was made on this French component.{{efn|For example, by Feb 1941 only 470 German shipyard workers had arrived at Brest, whilst the Naval Arsenal had 6,349 French workers. Though work on capital ships was generally done by Germans, French employees worked extensively on submarines and the smaller military vessels in the surface fleet. German Navy reports indicate that this was a willing workforce and that there were no incidences of sabotage. As well as working on ship repairs, the French provided a significant fire-fighting force to help negate the effect of Allied air raids. This story is balanced by Resistance activity, such as that of Jean Philippon, a French Naval Lieutenant Commander who provided important ship movement intelligence to the Allies for more than a year. This espionage was a key component in the effectiveness of Allied air raids which ultimately led to the removal of German capital ships to safer bases.}}[8] In 1944, after the Allied invasion of Normandy, the city was almost totally destroyed during the Battle for Brest, with only a tiny number of buildings left standing. After the war, the West German government paid several billion Deutschmarks in reparations to the homeless and destitute civilians of Brest in compensation for the destruction of their city. Large parts of today's rebuilt city consist of utilitarian granite and concrete buildings. The French naval base now houses the Brest Naval Training Centre. A wartime German navy memorandum suggested that the town should perhaps serve as a German enclave after the war.[9] In 1972, the French Navy opened its nuclear weapon-submarine (deterrence) base at Île Longue in the Rade de Brest (Brest roadstead). This continues to be an important base for the French nuclear-armed ballistic missile submarines. Coat of armsThe meaning of the coat of arms of Brest is half France (the three fleurs-de-lis of the former kingdom of France), half Brittany (semé d'hermine of Brittany). These arms were used for the first time in a register of deliberations of the city council dated the 15 July 1683.[10] SightsBrest is best known for its Pont de Recouvrance (Recouvrance Bridge, a massive drawbridge 64 m/210 ft high), the military arsenal and the rue de Siam (Siam Street). The castle and the Tanguy tower are the oldest monuments of Brest. The Musée de la Tour Tanguy, in the Tanguy tower, houses a collection of dioramas that depict the city of Brest on the eve of World War II. The Musée national de la Marine de Brest, housed in the ancient castle, contains exhibits which outline Brest's maritime tradition, as well as an aquarium, the Océanopolis marine centre. The city also has a notable botanical garden specializing in endangered species, the Conservatoire botanique national de Brest, as well as the Jardin botanique de l'Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Clermont-Tonnerre. The city of Brest does not have much remaining historical architecture, apart from a few select monuments such as the castle and the Tanguy tower. This is due to heavy bombing by the Allies during World War II, in an attempt to destroy the submarine base the Germans had built in the harbour. In the 1950s, the town was hastily rebuilt using a large amount of concrete. In Recouvrance, the west bank of the town, there remains an authentic street of the 17th century, Saint-Malo Street. A few kilometres out of town, there are more impressive landscapes, from sandy beaches to grottos to tall granite cliffs. Sunbathing, windsurfing, yachting and fishing are enjoyed in the area. Brest was an important warship-producing port during the Napoleonic wars. The naval port, which is in great part excavated in the rock, extends along both banks of the Penfeld river. GeographyBrest is located amidst a dramatic landscape near the entrance of the natural rade de Brest (Brest roadstead), at the west end of Brittany. It is situated to the north of a magnificent landlocked bay, and occupies the slopes of two hills divided by the river Penfeld. The part of the town on the left bank is regarded as Brest proper, while the part on the right is known as Recouvrance. There are also extensive suburbs to the east of the town. The hillsides are in some places so steep that the ascent from the lower to the upper town has to be effected by flights of steps and the second or third storey of one house is often on a level with the ground storey of the next. ClimateBrest experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) in its classic version (due to its location in the Atlantic Ocean and the sea intrusion[12]) where it shares a considerable moderation shared with other places of the Finistère and islands of Great Britain. Its climatic conditions also resemble Neah Bay, Washington but with summers a little warmer and drier in general than this.[13][14] {{Weather box|location = Brest (Bretagne Airport), elevation: 103 m, 1981-2010 normals, extremes 1945-present |metric first = Y |single line = Y |Jan record high C = 16.8 |Feb record high C = 19.3 |Mar record high C = 23.9 |Apr record high C = 28.2 |May record high C = 29.5 |Jun record high C = 33.3 |Jul record high C = 35.2 |Aug record high C = 35.1 |Sep record high C = 32.6 |Oct record high C = 28.1 |Nov record high C = 20.7 |Dec record high C = 18.3 |year record high C = 35.2 |Jan high C = 9.3 |Feb high C = 9.5 |Mar high C = 11.5 |Apr high C = 13.2 |May high C = 16.2 |Jun high C = 18.7 |Jul high C = 20.7 |Aug high C = 20.8 |Sep high C = 19.1 |Oct high C = 15.7 |Nov high C = 12.2 |Dec high C = 9.9 |year high C = 14.8 |Jan mean C = 6.9 |Feb mean C = 6.8 |Mar mean C = 8.4 |Apr mean C = 9.6 |May mean C = 12.6 |Jun mean C = 15.0 |Jul mean C = 16.9 |Aug mean C = 17.0 |Sep mean C = 15.4 |Oct mean C = 12.7 |Nov mean C = 9.5 |Dec mean C = 7.3 |year mean C = 11.5 |Jan low C = 4.4 |Feb low C = 4.1 |Mar low C = 5.4 |Apr low C = 6.1 |May low C = 8.9 |Jun low C = 11.2 |Jul low C = 13.2 |Aug low C = 13.2 |Sep low C = 11.6 |Oct low C = 9.6 |Nov low C = 6.7 |Dec low C = 4.8 |year low C = 8.3 |Jan record low C = -14.0 |Feb record low C = -13.4 |Mar record low C = -4.9 |Apr record low C = -2.3 |May record low C = 0.0 |Jun record low C = 3.8 |Jul record low C = 6.0 |Aug record low C = 6.6 |Sep record low C = 3.3 |Oct record low C = -1.5 |Nov record low C = -6.6 |Dec record low C = -10.1 |year record low C = -14.0 |precipitation colour = green |Jan precipitation mm = 143.8 |Feb precipitation mm = 111.7 |Mar precipitation mm = 95.8 |Apr precipitation mm = 92.1 |May precipitation mm = 79.0 |Jun precipitation mm = 59.8 |Jul precipitation mm = 66.8 |Aug precipitation mm = 66.8 |Sep precipitation mm = 83.3 |Oct precipitation mm = 129.0 |Nov precipitation mm = 134.1 |Dec precipitation mm = 147.8 |year precipitation mm = 1210.0 |unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm |Jan precipitation days = 17.7 |Feb precipitation days = 14.0 |Mar precipitation days = 14.5 |Apr precipitation days = 13.0 |May precipitation days = 11.3 |Jun precipitation days = 8.6 |Jul precipitation days = 10.4 |Aug precipitation days = 9.6 |Sep precipitation days = 10.1 |Oct precipitation days = 15.7 |Nov precipitation days = 16.9 |Dec precipitation days = 17.2 |year precipitation days = 159.0 |Jan snow days = 1.7 |Feb snow days = 2.8 |Mar snow days = 0.7 |Apr snow days = 0.3 |May snow days = 0.0 |Jun snow days = 0.0 |Jul snow days = 0.0 |Aug snow days = 0.0 |Sep snow days = 0.0 |Oct snow days = 0.0 |Nov snow days = 0.5 |Dec snow days = 1.3 |year snow days = 7.3 |Jan sun = 61.4 |Feb sun = 77.4 |Mar sun = 118.7 |Apr sun = 156.3 |May sun = 179.8 |Jun sun = 190.6 |Jul sun = 169.4 |Aug sun = 172.9 |Sep sun = 160.2 |Oct sun = 107.7 |Nov sun = 70.7 |Dec sun = 64.8 |year sun = 1529.8 |source 1 = Meteo France[15][16][17] }}{{Weather box | width = 100% | collapsed = y | open = | metric first = y | single line = y | location = Brest (Bretagne Airport), elevation: 103 m, 1961-1990 normals and extremes | Jan mean C =7.0 | Feb mean C =6.5 | Mar mean C =7.4 | Apr mean C =8.8 | May mean C =11.6 | Jun mean C =14.2 | Jul mean C =16.2 | Aug mean C =16.2 | Sep mean C =15.1 | Oct mean C =12.4 | Nov mean C =8.9 | Dec mean C =7.4 | Jan high C =9.3 | Feb high C =9.0 | Mar high C =10.6 | Apr high C =12.3 | May high C =14.9 | Jun high C =17.9 | Jul high C =19.7 | Aug high C =19.7 | Sep high C =18.3 | Oct high C =15.4 | Nov high C =11.5 | Dec high C =9.7 | Jan record high C =16.5 | Feb record high C =18.3 | Mar record high C =22.6 | Apr record high C =26.7 | May record high C =28.6 | Jun record high C =33.3 | Jul record high C =32.2 | Aug record high C =34.8 | Sep record high C =32.6 | Oct record high C =24.1 | Nov record high C =20.7 | Dec record high C =18.3 | Jan avg record high C =11.0 | Feb avg record high C =12.5 | Mar avg record high C =13.1 | Apr avg record high C =16.0 | May avg record high C =20.6 | Jun avg record high C =23.1 | Jul avg record high C =24.7 | Aug avg record high C =23.3 | Sep avg record high C =21.0 | Oct avg record high C =18.3 | Nov avg record high C =13.3 | Dec avg record high C =11.5 | Jan low C =4.6 | Feb low C =4.0 | Mar low C =4.5 | Apr low C =5.5 | May low C =8.0 | Jun low C =10.6 | Jul low C =12.3 | Aug low C =12.6 | Sep low C =11.8 | Oct low C =9.4 | Nov low C =6.2 | Dec low C =4.8 | Jan record low C =-10.9 | Feb record low C =-9.2 | Mar record low C =-4.9 | Apr record low C =-2.3 | May record low C =0.0 | Jun record low C =3.8 | Jul record low C =6.0 | Aug record low C =6.8 | Sep record low C =3.5 | Oct record low C =0.2 | Nov record low C =-6.6 | Dec record low C =-10.1 | Jan avg record low C =-2.0 | Feb avg record low C =-0.7 | Mar avg record low C =1.8 | Apr avg record low C =3.4 | May avg record low C =6.5 | Jun avg record low C =8.7 | Jul avg record low C =11.4 | Aug avg record low C =11.1 | Sep avg record low C =9.0 | Oct avg record low C =6.6 | Nov avg record low C =4.3 | Dec avg record low C =1.9 | precipitation colour = green | Jan precipitation mm =136.4 | Feb precipitation mm =90.0 | Mar precipitation mm =104.4 | Apr precipitation mm =71.5 | May precipitation mm =72.7 | Jun precipitation mm =51.5 | Jul precipitation mm =41.2 | Aug precipitation mm =61.0 | Sep precipitation mm =69.1 | Oct precipitation mm =94.1 | Nov precipitation mm =111.7 | Dec precipitation mm =132.0 | Jan percentsun =24.0 | Feb percentsun =31.0 | Mar percentsun =35.0 | Apr percentsun =43.0 | May percentsun =46.0 | Jun percentsun =46.0 | Jul percentsun =48.0 | Aug percentsun =47.0 | Sep percentsun =45.0 | Oct percentsun =37.0 | Nov percentsun =29.0 | Dec percentsun =25.0 | Jan sun =63.6 | Feb sun =87.9 | Mar sun =126.5 | Apr sun =174.9 | May sun =211.9 | Jun sun =216.1 | Jul sun =229.3 | Aug sun =206.2 | Sep sun =168.0 | Oct sun =123.6 | Nov sun =80.4 | Dec sun =63.3 | Jan snow days =1.5 | Feb snow days =1.5 | Mar snow days =1.0 | Apr snow days =0 | May snow days =0 | Jun snow days =0 | Jul snow days =0 | Aug snow days =0 | Sep snow days =0 | Oct snow days =0 | Nov snow days =0 | Dec snow days =1.0 | unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm | Jan precipitation days =18.0 | Feb precipitation days =13.5 | Mar precipitation days =15.5 | Apr precipitation days =13.0 | May precipitation days =11.0 | Jun precipitation days =8.5 | Jul precipitation days =8.0 | Aug precipitation days =8.5 | Sep precipitation days =10.0 | Oct precipitation days =12.5 | Nov precipitation days =17.0 | Dec precipitation days =17.0 |Jan humidity = 86 |Feb humidity = 84 |Mar humidity = 82 |Apr humidity = 81 |May humidity = 81 |Jun humidity = 83 |Jul humidity = 83 |Aug humidity = 83 |Sep humidity = 85 |Oct humidity = 86 |Nov humidity = 85 |Dec humidity = 86 | source = NOAA[18] |source 2 = Infoclimat.fr[19] }} TransportThe railway station of Brest, Gare de Brest, is linked to Rennes and Paris and provides services to other stations in Brittany as well. TGV trains to Paris take approximately three hours and forty minutes to reach the capital. A new 28 stop, {{convert|14.3|km|0|abbr=on}} tram line connecting Porte de Plouzané in the west with Porte de Gouesnou and Porte de Guipavas northeast of the city centre opened in June 2012.[20] Brest international airport, Brest Bretagne Airport, is mainly linked to Paris, London, Nice, Lyon, Dublin. The primarily operator is Air France (via its subsidiary HOP!). Brest international airport is the main airport of the region of Brittany in terms passager traffic with 45% of this traffic of the region, representing 919,404 passengers in 2010.[21] A new terminal has been in service since 12 December 2007 and can accommodate up to 1.8 million passengers annually.[22] The harbour of Brest is mainly dedicated to bulk, hydrocarbon and freight containers. The harbour's facilities can accommodate the largest modern ships. EconomyDue to its location, Brest is regarded as the first French port that can be accessed from the Americas. Shipping is big business, although Nantes and Saint-Nazaire offer much larger docks and attract more of the larger vessels. Brest has the ninth French commercial harbour including ship repairs and maintenance. The protected location of Brest means that its harbour is ideal to receive any type of ship, from the smallest dinghy to the biggest aircraft carrier (the {{USS|Nimitz}} has visited a few times). Naval construction is also an important activity: for example, the {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Charles de Gaulle}} was built by Direction des Constructions Navales (DCN) in Brest. Despite its image of an industrialised city whose activity depends mainly on military order, the service sector represents 75% of the economic activity.[23] The importance of the service sector is still increasing while industrialised activity is decaying, explaining the unchanged rate of working-class in Brest. Brest also hosts headquarters for many subsidiaries like the banking group Arkéa. Research and conception is taking an increasing importance. Brest claims to be the largest European centre for sciences and techniques linked to the sea: 60% of the French research in the maritime field is based in Brest.[24] Administration
Breton languageBreton is not commonly spoken in the city of Brest, which was the only French-speaking city in western Brittany before the 1789 French Revolution, despite the surrounding countryside being fully Breton-speaking at that time. Like other French minority languages, Breton does not have any official language status in France. The municipality launched a linguistic plan to revive Breton as a language through Ya d'ar brezhoneg on 16 June 2006. In 2008, 1.94% of primary-school children attended French-Breton bilingual Diwan schools.[25] Besides bilingual schools, the Breton language is also taught in some schools and universities. The association Sked federates all Breton cultural activities.[26] CultureThe city is host to several events to celebrate its long maritime history. The largest is held every four years, when the town organises a tall ship meeting. The last such tall ship event is "Les Tonnerres de Brest 2012". Brest also hosts an annual short film festival called "Brest European Short Film Festival". The city was the setting for the 1982 art film Querelle, directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder. CuisineBrittany's most famous local delicacy, the Breton crêpe, is the main culinary feature apart from seafood. There are many crêpe restaurants (called crêperies). Breton apple cider is often featured. Traditional biscuits include Traou Mad, which is a full-fat butter biscuit, similar to Scottish shortbread. SportSince 1901 Brest has served as the midpoint for the {{convert|1200|km|mi|abbr=on}} bicycle endurance event, Paris–Brest–Paris. Brest is home to Stade Brestois 29, a football team in Ligue 2. In 2002 the Brest throwball team Brest LC reached the 1st division of French throwball but were subsequently relegated due to financial difficulty. The club has recently adopted an Irish influenced infrastructure. The 2008 Tour de France started in Brest. Stage 6 of the 2018 Tour de France will depart in Brest. Brest is also home to Les Albatros, an ice hockey team in Ligue Magnus, and 2 league titles in the 90's. Research and educationPrimarily research centre of western Brittany, Brest and its surrounding area is the home of several research and elite educational establishments:
PersonalitiesBrest was the birthplace of:
International relations{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in France}}Twin towns – Sister citiesBrest is twinned with:[29]
Friendly relationshipBrest has an official friendly relationship (protocole d'amitié) with:[29]
See also{{Portal|Brittany}}
Notes{{notelist}}References1. ^{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|isbn=9781405881180}} 2. ^Nouvel atlas linguistique de la Base-Bretagne, 2001, Volume 1, map 6. 3. ^Brest.fr – Brest perspectives {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703045809/http://www.brest.fr/mediatheque-du-site/videotheque/voir-des-videos/h/42b0c2d476/video/27/back/128/scatvideo/3.html |date=3 July 2011 }} 4. ^{{cite web|author=Gaële MALGORN |url=http://www.participation-brest.net/article1533.html |title=Brest accueille ses 23 000 étudiants |publisher=Participation Brest |date=22 February 1999 |accessdate=6 April 2011}} 5. ^https://www.etymonline.com/word/brest 6. ^{{cite book | url=https://books.google.ie/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA247&dq=brest+celtic+hill&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiYnoejoa7bAhWEJMAKHRNxAsoQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=brest%20celtic%20hill&f=false | title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia | volume=1 | editor-first=John T. | editor-last=Koch | page=247 | date=2006 | publisher=ABC-CLIO | location=Santa Barbara, California | isbn=1-85109-440-7}} 7. ^{{cite book |last=Van Wyen |first=Adrian O. |authorlink = |title =Naval Aviation in World War I |publisher =Chief of Naval Operations |volume = |edition = |date =1969 |location =Washington, D.C. |page =65 |isbn =}} 8. ^{{cite book|last1=Hellwinkel|first1=Lars|title=Hitler's Gateway to the Atlantic: German Naval Bases in France 1940-1945|date=2014|publisher=Seaforth Publishing|pages=Kindle location 1151–1369|edition=Kindle}} 9. ^The Nizkor Project - Nuremberg Trials transcript 10. ^[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Les-armoiries-de-brest.pdf Les Armoiries de Brest]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. 11. ^Jean-Louis Auffret, Brest d'hier à demain, Éditions Cloître, March 2002, Saint-Thonan France, {{ISBN|2-910981-65-7}}, page 25 12. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.viamichelin.co.uk/web/Maps/Map-Brest-29200-Finistere-France|title=Brest Map: Detailed maps for the city of Brest - ViaMichelin|website=www.viamichelin.co.uk|language=en|access-date=2019-01-18}} 13. ^{{Cite web|url=https://people.eng.unimelb.edu.au/mpeel/koppen.html|title=Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map of the world|website=people.eng.unimelb.edu.au|access-date=2019-01-18}} 14. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weatherall.php3?s=233854&cityname=Neah-Bay-Washington-United-States-of-America&units=metric|title=Neah Bay, Washington Travel Weather Averages (Weatherbase)|website=Weatherbase|access-date=2019-01-18}} 15. ^{{cite web| url = http://www.meteofrance.com/climat/france/station/29075001/normales| title = Données climatiques de la station de Brest | publisher = Meteo France| language = French| accessdate = December 11, 2014}} 16. ^{{cite web| url = http://www.meteofrance.com/climat/france/bretagne/regi53/normales| title = Climat Bretagne| publisher = Meteo France| language = French| accessdate = December 11, 2014}} 17. ^{{cite web| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20180310164340/https://donneespubliques.meteofrance.fr/FichesClim/FICHECLIM_29075001.pdf| archivedate = March 10, 2018| url = https://donneespubliques.meteofrance.fr/FichesClim/FICHECLIM_29075001.pdf| title = Brest–Guipavas (29)| work = Fiche Climatologique: Statistiques 1981–2010 et records| publisher = Meteo France| language = French| accessdate = March 10, 2018}} 18. ^{{cite web| url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_VI/FR/07110.TXT| title = Brest (07110) - WMO Weather Station| accessdate = January 18, 2019| publisher = NOAA}} [https://archive.org/details/19611990NormalsNOAABrest Archived] January 18, 2019, at the Wayback Machine 19. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.infoclimat.fr/climatologie-07110-brest-guipavas.html |title = Normes et records 1961-1990: Brest-Guipavas (29) - altitude 94m |language = French |publisher = Infoclimat.fr (humidity) |accessdate = December 11, 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141008133221/http://www.infoclimat.fr/climatologie-07110-brest-guipavas.html |archive-date = 8 October 2014 |dead-url = bot: unknown |df = dmy-all}} October 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine 20. ^{{cite news|title= Brest tramway opens |url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/brest-tramway-opens.html|date=26 June 2012|accessdate=29 June 2012|publisher=Railway Gazette International}} 21. ^{{cite web|url=http://brest.letelegramme.com/local/finistere-nord/brest/ville/port-et-aeroport-progressions-en-2010-08-01-2011-1168234.php |title=Le Télégramme – Brest ville – Port et aéroport de Brest. Progressions en 2010 |publisher=Brest.letelegramme.com |date= |accessdate=6 April 2011}} 22. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.airport.cci-brest.fr/en/aeroport/presentation.html |title=www.brest.aeroport.fr » Environment |publisher=Airport.cci-brest.fr |date=4 August 2005 |accessdate=6 April 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720210226/http://www.airport.cci-brest.fr/en/aeroport/presentation.html |archivedate=20 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }} 23. ^Source: site Invest in Brest 24. ^Source: Invest in Brest, BMO {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122031447/http://www.cub-brest.fr/fr-investinbrest/documents/recherche.pdf |date=22 November 2008 }} 25. ^{{Fr icon}} Ofis ar Brezhoneg: Enseignement bilingue 26. ^{{cite web |url=http://sked.infini.fr/ |title=[SKED] Les nouveautés |publisher=Sked.infini.fr |date= |accessdate=2013-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128075656/http://sked.infini.fr/ |archive-date=28 January 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }} 27. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ifremer.fr/anglais/ |title=Institut |publisher=Ifremer.fr |date= |accessdate=6 April 2011}} 28. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cedre.fr/index-en.php |title=Cedre: Centre of Documentation, Research and Experimentation on Accidental Water Pollution |publisher=Cedre.fr |date=17 March 2011 |accessdate=6 April 2011}} 29. ^1 Les jumelages de Brest {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715041221/http://www.mairie-brest.fr/brest/jumelages.htm |date=15 July 2009 }} 30. ^{{cite web|url=http://denversistercities.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/1st-Q-20101.pdf|title=Our First Sister City|accessdate=2015-11-20|work=Denver Sister Cities International|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121025311/http://denversistercities.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/1st-Q-20101.pdf|archive-date=21 November 2015|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}} 31. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.completefrance.com/language-culture/twin-towns |title=British towns twinned with French towns |accessdate=2013-07-11 |work=Archant Community Media Ltd |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130705094933/http://www.completefrance.com/language-culture/twin-towns |archivedate=5 July 2013 |df=dmy }} 32. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.brest.fr/developpement-rayonnement/relations-internationales/les-jumelages.html |title=Les jumelages |publisher=Brest.fr |date= |accessdate=6 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525124614/http://www.brest.fr/developpement-rayonnement/relations-internationales/les-jumelages.html |archive-date=25 May 2011 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }} 33. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.plymouth.gov.uk/homepage/communityandliving/twintowns.htm|title=Twin towns|publisher=Plymouth City Council|accessdate=1 March 2008}}
Bibliography{{See also|Timeline of Brest, France#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of Brest, France}}External links{{Commons category|Brest (France)}}{{Wikisource1911Enc|Brest}}
6 : Brest, France|Cities in France|Communes of Finistère|Populated coastal places in France|Port cities and towns on the French Atlantic coast|Subprefectures in France |
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