“Brutalist architecture”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Brutalist architecture or Brutalism is an architectural style which emerged in the mid-20th century and gained popularity in the 1970s. It descended from the modernist architectural movement of the early 20th century.^[1] It is characterized by simple, block-like structures that often feature bare building materials. Exposed concrete is favored in construction, however some examples are primarily made of brick. Though beginning in Europe, Brutalist architecture can now be found around the world. The style has been most commonly used in the design of institutional buildings such as libraries, courts, public housing and city halls.

Brutalism's stark, geometric designs contrast with the more ornate features of some 1930s and 1940s architecture. Brutalist designs have historically been polarising. Specific buildings, as well as the movement as a whole, have drawn a range of criticism and support from architects and the public. Many brutalist buildings have become architectural and cultural icons, with some obtaining listed status.

History

The term "Brutalism" was coined by the Swedish architect Hans Asplund to describe Villa Göth, a modern brick home in Uppsala, designed in 1949 by his contemporaries Bengt Edman and Lennart Holm.^[2] He initially used the Swedish term Nybrutalism (New Brutalism), which was picked up in the early 1950s by a group of visiting English architects, including Michael Ventris, and Alison and Peter Smithson.^[3]^[2]^[4] The Smithsons' Hunstanton School completed in 1954 in Norfolk, and the Sugden House completed in 1955 in Watford, represent ground zero for Brutalism in the United Kingdom. The term gained increasingly wider recognition when the British architectural historian Reyner Banham used it, to identify both an ethic and aesthetic style, in both his 1955 essay, The New Brutalism, and 1966 book, The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic?, to characterize a somewhat recently established cluster of architectural approaches, particularly in Europe.^[4]^[5] In the 1955 essay, Reyner Banham also associated the term New Brutalism with Art Brut and Le Corbusier's béton brut, meaning raw concrete in French, for the first time.^[2]^[6]^[7]

The best known proto-Brutalist architecture is the work of the Swiss architect Le Corbusier, in particular his 1952 Unité d'habitation in France, the 1953 Secretariat Building (Palace of Assembly) in Chandigarh, India and the 1955 church of Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France. Brutalism gained considerable momentum in the United Kingdom during the mid-twentieth century, as economically depressed (and World War II-ravaged) communities sought inexpensive construction and design methods for low-cost housing, shopping centres, and government buildings.

Brutalism began to be favoured by governmental and institutional clients, with numerous examples in English-speaking countries (the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia), Western Europe (France, Germany, Italy), the Soviet Union, the Eastern Bloc (Slovakia, Bulgaria), and places as disparate as Japan, India, Brazil, the Philippines, and Israel. Examples are typically massive in character (even when not large), fortress-like, with a predominance of exposed concrete construction, or, in the case of the "brick Brutalists," they ruggedly combine detailed brickwork and concrete. There is often an emphasis on graphic expressions in the external elevations and in the whole-site architectural plan the main functions and people-flows of the buildings. Brutalism became popular for educational buildings (especially university buildings) but was relatively rare for corporate projects, which largely preferred International Style. Brutalism became favoured for many government projects, rectangle tower blocks (high-rise housing), and shopping centres.

Combined with the socially progressive intentions behind Brutalist streets in the sky housing such as the Smithsons' Robin Hood Gardens, completed in 1972, Brutalism was promoted as a positive option for forward-moving, modern urban housing.

Characteristics

Brutalist buildings are usually constructed with repeated modular elements forming masses representing specific functional zones, distinctly articulated and grouped together into a unified whole. Concrete is used for its raw and unpretentious honesty, contrasting dramatically with the highly refined and ornamented buildings constructed in the elite Beaux-Arts style. Surfaces of cast concrete are made to reveal the basic nature of its construction, revealing the texture of the wooden planks used for the in-situ casting forms. Brutalist building materials also include brick, glass, steel, rough-hewn stone, and gabions. Conversely, not all buildings exhibiting an exposed concrete exterior can be considered Brutalist, and may belong to one of a range of architectural styles including Constructivism, International Style, Expressionism, Postmodernism, and Deconstructivism.

Another common theme in Brutalist designs is the exposure of the building's functions—ranging from their structure and services to their human use—in the exterior of the building. In the Boston City Hall, designed in 1962, the strikingly different and projected portions of the building indicate the special nature of the rooms behind those walls, such as the mayor's office or the city council chambers. From another perspective, the design of the Hunstanton School included placing the facility's water tank, normally a hidden service feature, in a prominent, visible tower.

Brutalism as an architectural philosophy which was often associated with a socialist utopian ideology, which tended to be supported by its designers, especially Alison and Peter Smithson, near the height of the style. This style had a strong position in the architecture of European communist countries from the mid-1960s to the late 1980s (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, USSR, Yugoslavia).^[8] In Czechoslovakia Brutalism was presented as an attempt to create a "national" but also "modern socialist" architectural style.

Designers

In Australia, examples of the Brutalist style are Robin Gibson's Queensland Art Gallery, Ken Woolley's Fisher Library at the University of Sydney (his State Office Block is another), the High Court of Australia by Colin Madigan in Canberra, and WTC Wharf (World Trade Centre in Melbourne).^[10] John Andrews's government and institutional structures in Australia also exhibit the style.

Canada possesses numerous examples of Brutalist architecture. In the years leading to the 100th anniversary of the Confederation in 1967, the Federal Government financed the construction of many of public buildings. Major Brutalist examples, not all built as part of the Canadian Centennial, include the Grand Théâtre de Québec, the Édifice Marie-Guyart (formerly Complex-G), Hôtel Le Concorde, and much of the Laval University campus in Quebec City; Habitat 67, Place Bonaventure, the Maison de Radio-Canada, and several metro stations on the Montreal Metro's Green Line; the Confederation Centre of the Arts in Charlottetown; the National Arts Center in Ottawa; the Hotel Dieu Hospital in Kingston; Robarts Library, Rochdale College in Toronto; the church of the Westminster Abbey in British Columbia. {{Citation needed|date=June 2017}}

In the United Kingdom, architects associated with the Brutalist style include Ernő Goldfinger, wife-and-husband pairing Alison and Peter Smithson, some of the work of Sir Basil Spence, the London County Council/Greater London Council Architects Department, Owen Luder, John Bancroft, and, arguably perhaps, Sir Denys Lasdun, Sir Leslie Martin, Sir James Stirling and James Gowan with their early works. Some well-known examples of Brutalist-influenced architecture in the British capital include the Barbican Centre (Chamberlin, Powell and Bon) and the National Theatre (Denys Lasdun).

In the United States Paul Rudolph and Ralph Rapson were both noted Brutalists.^[11] Evans Woollen III, a pacesetter among architects in the Midwest, is credited for introducing the Brutalist and Modernist architecture styles to Indianapolis, Indiana.^[12] Walter Netsch is known for his Brutalist academic buildings. Marcel Breuer was known for his "soft" approach to the style, often using curves rather than corners.

In Argentina Clorindo Testa created the Bank of London and South America headquarters, one of the best examples of the 1950s.

In Italy, Vittoriano Viganò designed the Istituto Marchiondi in Milan in 1957,^[13] and the BBPR studio built the Torre Velasca in 1958. More recent Modernists such as I. M. Pei, Gottfried Böhm and Tadao Ando also have designed notable Brutalist works. In Trieste, the main building of the Galileo Galilei high school (1969–71), as well as the residential housing complex known as "il Quadrilatero" (1969–82), in the district of Rozzol Melara are iconic representations of the brutalist style. Other examples include the Enrico Nordio art institute and the Temple of Monte Grisa.

In Brazil, the style is associated with the Paulista School and is evident in the works of Pritzker Architecture Prize-winning architect Paulo Mendes da Rocha (2006).

In the Philippines, Leandro Locsin designed massive Brutalist structures, including the Tanghalang Pambansa and the Philippine International Convention Center.

In New Zealand, Sir Miles Warren and his practice Warren & Mahoney led the development of the so-called "Christchurch School" of architecture, which fused Brutalist architectural style with Scandinavian and Japanese values of straightforwardness. Warren's style has influenced New Zealand's public architecture.

In Serbia (then Yugoslavia), Božidar Janković was a representative of the so-called "Belgrade School of residence", identifiable by its functionalist relations on the basis of the flat^[14]^[15] and elaborated in detail the architecture. His architectural structures, built more than four decades ago,{{when|date=December 2017}} are in better physical condition today than many buildings which were constructed years later.{{when|date=December 2017}}{{citation needed|date=December 2017}}

Architects whose work reflects certain aspects of the Brutalist style include Louis Kahn. Architectural historian William Jordy says that although Kahn was "[o]pposed to what he regarded as the muscular posturing of most Brutalism", some of his work "was surely informed by some of the same ideas that came to momentary focus in the Brutalist position."^[16]

On university campuses

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, many North American universities constructed campus buildings in the Brutalist style due to their low cost and ease of construction, beginning with Paul Rudolph's 1958 Yale Art and Architecture Building. Rudolph's design for the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth is an example of an entire campus designed in the Brutalist style. Walter Netsch designed the entire University of Illinois-Chicago Circle Campus (now the East Campus of the University of Illinois at Chicago) under a single, unified Brutalist design.^[17] John M. Johansen and Evans Woollen III's Brutalist-style Clowes Memorial Hall, a performing arts facility that opened in 1963 on the campus of Butler University in Indianapolis, was praised for its bold and dramatic design.^[18] In 1964, Brigham Young University inaugurated the Franklin S. Harris Fine Arts Center, which features a largely Brutalist style of architecture. The University of Chicago's Joseph Regenstein Library, one of the largest libraries in the world, is designed in the Brutalist style. The Northwestern University Library is also designed in a Brutalist style and is a good example of this type of architecture. The University of Minnesota's West Bank campus features several Brutalist buildings, including the performing arts venue, Rarig Center, one of Ralph Rapson's most important works and the best example of Brutalism in the Twin Cities.^[19] The University of Louisville Belknap Campus has several Brutalist buildings, including the Bingham Humanities Building and the Interfaith Center. The Andrews Building at the University of Toronto Scarborough was built in a Brutalist architectural style and completed in 1964. In 1965, Desert Modern architect E. Stewart Williams was commissioned to design a new campus for the San Bernardino Community College District. Construction of Crafton Hills College began a year later, and the last building that was part of his original campus plan was completed in 1976. Williams' Brutalist design contrasts with the steep terrain of the area and was chosen in part because it provided a fire break from the surrounding environment.^[20] The Iowa State Center at Iowa State University originally consisted of five buildings in the Brutalist style, including a theater, auditorium, coliseum, stadium, and events center, as well as connecting elevated promenades.

At the same period in the U.K., similar expansion of higher education led to the construction of many Brutalist university buildings, notable examples being the Boyd Orr Building at the University of Glasgow, the University of Essex,^[21] and Denys Lasdun's halls of residence at the University of East Anglia.^[2]

Criticism and reception

Brutalism has some severe critics, including Charles, Prince of Wales, whose speeches and writings on architecture have excoriated Brutalism, calling many of the structures "piles of concrete". "You have to give this much to the Luftwaffe", said Prince Charles at the Corporation of London Planning and Communication Committee's annual dinner in December 1987, "When it knocked down our buildings, it didn't replace them with anything more offensive than rubble."^[22] Defenders of the style argue that the criticism comes not only from the designs of the buildings, but also from the fact that concrete façades do not age well in damp, cloudy maritime climates such as those of northwestern Europe and New England. In these climates, the concrete becomes streaked with water stains and sometimes with moss and lichens, and rust stains from the steel reinforcing bars.^[23]

Critics of the style find it unappealing due to its "cold" appearance, projecting an atmosphere of totalitarianism, as well as the association of the buildings with urban decay due to materials weathering poorly in certain climates and the surfaces being prone to vandalism by graffiti. Despite this, the style is appreciated by others, and preservation efforts are taking place in the United Kingdom.^[7]^[24]

At the University of Oregon campus, outrage and vocal distaste for Brutalism led, in part, to the hiring of Christopher Alexander and the initiation of The Oregon Experiment in the late 1970s. This led to the development of Alexander's A Pattern Language and The Timeless Way of Building.^[25]{{Failed verification|date=August 2018}}

Brutalism today

Although the Brutalist movement was largely over by the mid-1980s, having largely given way to Structural Expressionism and Deconstructivism, it has experienced a resurgence of interest since 2015 with the publication of a variety of guides and books, including the Brutalist London Map (2015), This Brutal World (2016), SOS Brutalism: A Global Survey (2017) as well as the lavish Atlas of Brutalist Architecture (Phaidon, 2018).

Many of the defining aspects of the style have been softened in newer buildings, with concrete façades often being sandblasted to create a stone-like surface, covered in stucco, or composed of patterned, pre-cast elements. These elements are also found in renovations of older Brutalist buildings, such as the redevelopment of Sheffield's Park Hill. Cladding of the exterior may be undertaken in part to improve the neighbours' view, and cladding itself may bring fire risks; this is widely seen to be one of the causes of the June 2017 Grenfell Tower fire.^[27]

Several Brutalist buildings have been granted listed status as historic and others, such as the Pirelli Building in New Haven's Long Wharf,^[28] and Gillespie, Kidd & Coia's St. Peter's Seminary, named by Prospect magazine's survey of architects as Scotland's greatest post-war building, have been the subject of conservation campaigns. The Twentieth Century Society has unsuccessfully campaigned against the demolition of British buildings such as the Tricorn Centre and Trinity Square multi-storey car park, but successfully in the case of Preston bus station garage, London's Hayward Gallery and others.

Notable buildings that have been razed include the Smithson's Robin Hood Gardens (2017) in East London, John Madin's Birmingham Central Library (2016), Marcel Breuer's American Press Institute Building in Reston, Virginia, and Araldo Cossutta's Third Church of Christ, Scientist in Washington, D.C. (2014).

Notable buildings which are threatened include the Sirius building in Sydney, Welbeck Street Car Park in London, and Atlanta Central Library in Georgia, USA.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}

See also

Notes

1. ^Đorđe, Alfirević & Simonović Alfirević, Sanja: [https://www.academia.edu/31574816/Brutalism_in_Serbian_Architecture_Style_or_Necessity_Brutalizam_u_srpskoj_arhitekturi_stil_ili_nu%C5%BEnost_ Brutalism in Serbian Architecture: Style or Necessity?] Facta Universitatis: Architecture and Civil Engineering (Niš), Vol. 15, No. 3 (2017), pp. 317–331.
2. ^¹²³{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/feb/13/jonathan-meades-brutalism-a-z|title=The incredible hulks: Jonathan Meades' A-Z of brutalism|last=Meades|first=Jonathan|date=2014-02-13|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-10-10}}
3. ^{{Citation|last=Bull|first=Alun|title=What is Brutalism?|date=2013-11-08|url=https://vimeo.com/78931268|access-date=2018-10-10}}
4. ^¹Golan 2003, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070830232044/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0422/is_2_85/ai_104208984/pg_3 p.3].
5. ^{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/on-architecture-1/the-new-brutalism-6601463336e8|title=The New Brutalism|last=Review|first=Architectural|date=2014-05-15|website=On Architecture|access-date=2018-10-10}}
6. ^McClelland, Michael, and Graeme Stewart, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQwx1SorMocC&q=beton#v=snippet Concrete Toronto]: A Guide to Concrete Architecture from the Fifties to the Seventies," Coach House Books, 2007, p. 12.
7. ^¹British Brutalism. World Monument Fund.
8. ^{{cite book|author1=Kulić, Vladimir |author2=Mrduljaš, Maroje |author3=Thaler, Wolfgang |year=2012|title=Modernism In-Between: The Mediatory Architectures of Socialist Yugoslavia| publisher= Jovis | location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-86859-147-7 | language=English }}
9. ^Paiement, Genevieve: [https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/may/13/habitat-67-montreal-expo-moshe-safdie-history-cities-50-buildings-day-35 Habitat 67, Montreal's 'failed dream' – a history of cities in 50 buildings, day 35.] The Guardian, 13 May 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
10. ^{{cite news | title=Watch this space – Brutalism meets beauty in the National Gallery's new wing | author=Farrelly, Elizabeth | date=9 October 2010 | publisher=The Sydney Morning Herald"Spectrum" section| pages=16–17}}
11. ^{{cite web|url= http://www.circadesign.net/brutalism/|title=Architects: Brutalism |work=Circa Design}}
12. ^{{cite journal| author=Trounstine, Philip J.| title =Evans Woollen | journal =[Indianapolis] Star Magazine | volume = | issue = | page=18 | publisher = | location =Indianapolis, Indiana | date =May 9, 1976| url =| accessdate =}} See also: {{cite journal| author=| title =Prominent local architect Woollen Dies at 88 | journal =Indianapolis Business Journal | volume = | issue = | pages = | publisher = | location =Indianapolis | date =May 19, 2016| url = https://www.ibj.com/articles/58673| accessdate =18 December 2017}}
13. ^¹{{cite book|title=Vittoriano Viganò. A come Asimmetria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqbKpudhMboC&pg=PA124|year=2011|publisher=Gangemi Editore spa|isbn=978-88-492-6584-2|page=124}}
14. ^{{cite web|url=http://stanovanje.yolasite.com/katalog-stanova.php|title=Centar za stanovanje – Center for Housing | website=stanovanje.yolasite.com|accessdate=14 July 2017}}
15. ^{{cite web|url=http://stanovanje.yolasite.com/beogradski-stan.php|title=Centar za stanovanje – Center for Housing|website=stanovanje.yolasite.com|accessdate=14 July 2017}}
16. ^{{cite book |title=The Impact of European Modernism in the Mid-twentieth Century |series=American Buildings and Their Architects |volume=5 |last=Jordy |first=William |authorlink=William Jordy |year=1972 |publisher= Oxford University Press |location=New York, Oxford |isbn=0-19-504219-0 |page=363 }}
17. ^Historic Netsch Campus at UIC Retrieved 31 December 2010
18. ^{{cite journal| author=Megan Fernandez| title =The Pillar: Evans Woollen | journal =Indianapolis Monthly | volume = | issue = | page=68 | publisher = | location =Indianapolis, Indiana | date =June 2010| url = https://www.indianapolismonthly.com/features/the-pillar-evans-woollen/| accessdate =December 18, 2017}} See also: {{cite journal| author=Philip J. Trounstine| title =Evans Woollen: Struggles of a 'Good Architect'| journal =[Indianapolis] Star Magazine | volume = | issue = | page=23 | publisher = | location =Indianapolis, Indiana | date =May 9, 1976| url =| accessdate =}}
19. ^{{cite book|last=Millett|first=Larry|title=AIA Guide to the Twin Cities|year=2007|publisher=Minnesota Historical Society|location=Saint Paul, Minnesota|page=148|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T9axsT5T8fcC&dq=university+of+minnesota+west+bank+campus+brutalism+rarig+center}}
20. ^{{cite book|last1=Kopelk|first1=William|title=E. Stewart Williams: A Tribute to His Work and Life|date=2005|publisher=Palm Springs Preservation Foundation|location=Palm Springs, CA}}
21. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n17/marina-warner/diary|title=Diary: Why I Quit|publisher=London Review of Books|author=Marina Warner}}
22. ^{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2004/may/17/architecture.regeneration | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Life after carbuncles | first=Jonathan | last=Glancey | date=17 May 2004 | accessdate=2010-04-27}}
23. ^{{cite web|title=CIP 25 - Corrosion of Steel in Concrete|url=https://www.nrmca.org/aboutconcrete/cips/25p.pdf|website=nrmca|publisher=National Ready Mixed Concrete Association|accessdate=7 May 2017}}
24. ^Winston, Anna: [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jun/18/five-architectural-treasures-we-must-save-uk-heritage-war-historic-england Five architectural treasures we must save from the UK’s heritage war.] The Guardian, 18 June 2015.
25. ^{{Cite web |url=http://www.cement.org/for-concrete-books-learning/concrete-technology/durability/corrosion-of-embedded-materials |title=Archived copy |access-date=22 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122071514/http://www.cement.org/for-concrete-books-learning/concrete-technology/durability/corrosion-of-embedded-materials |archive-date=22 November 2016 |dead-url=bot: unknown |df=dmy-all }}
26. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.city-journal.org/2009/19_4_otbie-le-corbusier.html|title=The Architect as Totalitarian|date=Autumn 2009|author=Theodore Dalrymple|work=City Journal|accessdate=4 January 2010}}
27. ^{{cite news|last1=Griffin|first1=Andrew|title=Grenfell Tower cladding that may have led to fire was chosen to improve appearance of Kensington block of flats|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/grenfell-tower-cladding-fire-cause-improve-kensington-block-flats-appearance-blaze-24-storey-west-a7789951.html|accessdate=20 June 2017|publisher=The Independent|date=14 June 2017}}
28. ^