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词条 Five Eyes
释义

  1. History

      Origins (1940s–1950s)    Cold War (1950s–1990s)    ECHELON network disclosures (1988–2000)    War on Terror (2001–present)  

  2. Domestic espionage sharing controversy

  3. Other international cooperatives

  4. List of FVEY surveillance targets

     Notable individuals    Notable organisations  

  5. See also

  6. References

  7. External links

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The Five Eyes, often abbreviated as FVEY, is an anglophone intelligence alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States. These countries are parties to the multilateral UKUSA Agreement, a treaty for joint cooperation in signals intelligence.[1][2][3]

The origins of the FVEY can be traced back to the post–World War II period, when the Atlantic Charter was issued by the Allies to lay out their goals for a post-war world. During the course of the Cold War, the ECHELON surveillance system was initially developed by the FVEY to monitor the communications of the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, although it is now used to monitor billions of private communications worldwide.[4][5]

In the late 1990s, the existence of ECHELON was disclosed to the public, triggering a major debate in the European Parliament and, to a lesser extent, the United States Congress. As part of efforts in the ongoing War on Terror since 2001, the FVEY further expanded their surveillance capabilities, with much emphasis placed on monitoring the World Wide Web. The former NSA contractor Edward Snowden described the Five Eyes as a "supra-national intelligence organisation that does not answer to the known laws of its own countries".[6] Documents leaked by Snowden in 2013 revealed that the FVEY have been spying on one another's citizens and sharing the collected information with each other in order to circumvent restrictive domestic regulations on surveillance of citizens.[7][8][9][10]

In spite of continued controversy over its methods, the Five Eyes relationship remains one of the most comprehensive known espionage alliances in history.[6]

Since processed intelligence is gathered from multiple sources, the intelligence shared is not restricted to signals intelligence (SIGINT) and often involves defence intelligence as well as human intelligence (HUMINT) and geospatial intelligence (GEOINT). The following table provides an overview of most of the FVEY agencies involved in such forms of data sharing.[1]

CountryAgencyAbbrRole[1]
{{flag|AustraliaDepartment of Home Affairs Home AffairsPolicy
Australian Secret Intelligence Service ASISHuman intelligence
Australian Signals Directorate ASDSignal intelligence
Australian Security Intelligence OrganisationASIOSecurity intelligence
Australian Geospatial-Intelligence OrganisationAGOGeo intelligence
Defence Intelligence Organisation DIO Defence intelligence
{{flag|Canada Canadian Forces Intelligence Command CFINTCOM Defence intelligence, Geo Intelligence
Communications Security Establishment CSESignal intelligence
Canadian Security Intelligence Service CSIS Human intelligence, Security intelligence
{{flag|New Zealand Directorate of Defence Intelligence and SecurityDDIS Defence intelligence
Government Communications Security BureauGCSB Signal intelligence
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service NZSIS Human intelligence
{{flag|United Kingdom Defence Intelligence DI Defence intelligence
Government Communications HeadquartersGCHQ Signal intelligence
Security Service MI5 Security intelligence
Secret Intelligence Service MI6, SIS Human intelligence
{{flag|United States Central Intelligence Agency CIA Human intelligence
Defense Intelligence Agency DIA Defense intelligence
Federal Bureau of Investigation FBI Security intelligence
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency NGA Geo intelligence
National Security Agency NSA Signal intelligence

History

Origins (1940s–1950s)

The origins of the Five Eyes alliance can be traced back to the Atlantic Charter, which was issued in August 1941 to lay out the Allied goals for the post-war world. On 17 May 1943, the British–U.S. Communication Intelligence Agreement, also known as the BRUSA Agreement, was signed by the UK and U.S. governments to facilitate co-operation between the U.S. War Department and the British Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS). On 5 March 1946, the secret treaty was formalized as the UKUSA Agreement, which forms the basis for all signal intelligence cooperation between the NSA and GCHQ to this day.[7][8]

In 1948, the treaty was extended to include Canada, followed by Norway (1952), Denmark (1954), West Germany (1955), Australia (1956), and New Zealand (1956).[8] These countries participated in the alliance as "third parties". By 1955, the formal status of the remaining Five Eyes countries was officially acknowledged in a newer version of the UKUSA Agreement that contained the following statement:

{{quote|At this time only Canada, Australia and New Zealand will be regarded as UKUSA-collaborating Commonwealth countries.[8]}}

The "Five Eyes" term has its origins as a shorthand for a "AUS/CAN/NZ/UK/US EYES ONLY" (AUSCANNZUKUS) classification level.[9]

Cold War (1950s–1990s)

During the Cold War, GCHQ and the NSA shared intelligence on the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, and several eastern European countries (known as Exotics).[10] Over the course of several decades, the ECHELON surveillance network was developed to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies.[11]

During the Vietnam War, Australian and New Zealand operators in the Asia-Pacific region worked directly to support the United States, while GCHQ operators stationed in the (then) British colony of Hong Kong were tasked with monitoring North Vietnamese air defence networks.[12][13] During the Falklands War, the British received intelligence data from its FVEY allies such as Australia, as well as from third parties such as Norway and France.[14][15][16] In the aftermath of the Gulf War, a technician of the ASIS was used by SIS to bug Kuwaiti government offices.[15]

In the 1950s, SIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the overthrow of Iran's Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh.[17][18][19][20] In the 1960s, SIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the assassination of the Congolese independence leader Patrice Lumumba.[21][22][23] In the 1970s, the ASIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the overthrow of Chile's President Salvador Allende.[24][25][26][27] During the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, SIS and the CIA took part in Operation Yellowbird to rescue dissidents from the Chinese regime.[28]

ECHELON network disclosures (1988–2000)

By the end of the 20th century, the ECHELON surveillance network had evolved into a global system capable of sweeping up massive amounts of private and commercial communications, including telephone calls, fax, e-mail and other data traffic. This was done through the interception of communication bearers such as satellite transmission and public switched telephone networks.[29]

The Five Eyes has two types of information collection methods: the PRISM program and the Upstream collection system. The PRISM program gathers user information from technology firms such as Google, Apple and Microsoft, while the Upstream system gathers information directly from the communications of civilians via fiber cables and infrastructure as data flows past.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} In 1988, Duncan Campbell revealed in the New Statesman the existence of ECHELON, an extension of the UKUSA Agreement on global signals intelligence [Sigint]. The story, 'Somebody's listening,' detailed how the eavesdropping operations were not only being employed in the interests of 'national security,' but were regularly abused for corporate espionage in the service of US business interests. The piece passed largely unnoticed outside of journalism circles.[30]

In 1996, a detailed description of ECHELON was provided by New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager in a book titled "Secret Power – New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network", which was cited by the European Parliament in a 1998 report titled "An Appraisal of the Technology of Political Control" (PE 168.184).[31] On 16 March 2000, the Parliament called for a resolution on the Five Eyes and their ECHELON surveillance network, which, if passed, would have called for the "complete dismantling of ECHELON".[32]

Three months later, the Temporary Committee on ECHELON was set up by the European Parliament to investigate the ECHELON surveillance network. However, according to a number of European politicians such as Esko Seppänen of Finland, these investigations were hindered by the European Commission.[33]

In the United States, congressional legislators warned that the ECHELON system could be used to monitor U.S. citizens.[34] On 14 May 2001, the U.S. government cancelled all meetings with the Temporary Committee on ECHELON.[35]

According to a BBC report in May 2001, "the US Government still refuses to admit that Echelon even exists."[11]

War on Terror (2001–present)

{{See also|Global surveillance}}

In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the surveillance capabilities of the Five Eyes were greatly increased as part of the global War on Terror.

During the run-up to the Iraq War, the communications of UN weapons inspector Hans Blix were monitored by the Five Eyes.[36][37] The office of UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan was bugged by British agents.[38][39] An NSA memo detailed plans of the Five Eyes to boost eavesdropping on UN delegations of six countries as part of a "dirty tricks" campaign to apply pressure on these six countries to vote in favour of using force against Iraq.[38][40][41]

SIS and the CIA forged a surveillance partnership with Libya's ruler Muammar Gaddafi to spy on Libyan dissidents in the West, in exchange for permission to use Libya as a base for extraordinary renditions.[42][43][44][45][46]

{{As of|2010}}, the Five Eyes also have access to SIPRNet, the U.S. government's classified version of the Internet.[47]

In 2013, documents leaked by the former NSA contractor Edward Snowden revealed the existence of numerous surveillance programs jointly operated by the Five Eyes. The following list includes several notable examples reported in the media:

  • PRISM – Operated by the NSA together with GCHQ and the ASD[48][49]
  • XKeyscore – Operated by the NSA with contributions from the ASD and the GCSB[50]
  • Tempora – Operated by GCHQ with contributions from the NSA[51][52]
  • MUSCULAR – Operated by GCHQ and the NSA[53]
  • STATEROOM – Operated by the ASD, CIA, CSE, GCHQ, and NSA[54]

In March 2014, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ordered Australia to stop spying on East Timor. This marks the first time that such restrictions are imposed on a member of the FVEY.[55]

Domestic espionage sharing controversy

{{Quote box|width=246px|align=right|The Five Eyes alliance is sort of an artifact of the post World War II era where the Anglophone countries are the major powers banded together to sort of co-operate and share the costs of intelligence gathering infrastructure. … The result of this was over decades and decades some sort of a supra-national intelligence organisation that doesn't answer to the laws of its own countries.|salign = right |source=—Edward Snowden[56]}}

In recent years, documents of the FVEY have shown that they are intentionally spying on one another's citizens and sharing the collected information with each other in order to circumvent restrictive domestic regulations on spying.

[57][58][59][60][61] Shami Chakrabarti, the director of the advocacy group Liberty, claimed that the FVEY alliance increases the ability of member states to "subcontract their dirty work" to each other.[62] The former NSA contractor Edward Snowden described the FVEY as a "supra-national intelligence organisation that doesn't answer to the laws of its own countries".[56]

As a result of Snowden's disclosures, the FVEY alliance has become the subject of a growing amount of controversy in parts of the world:

  • {{flag|Canada}}: In late 2013, Canadian federal judge Richard Mosley strongly rebuked the CSIS for outsourcing its surveillance of Canadians to overseas partner agencies. A 51-page court ruling asserts that the CSIS and other Canadian federal agencies have been illegally enlisting FVEY allies in global surveillance dragnets, while keeping domestic federal courts in the dark.[63][64][65]
  • {{flag|New Zealand}}: In 2014, the NZSIS and the GCSB of New Zealand were asked by the New Zealand Parliament to clarify if they had received any monetary contributions from members of the FVEY alliance. Both agencies withheld relevant information and refused to disclose any possible monetary contributions from the FVEY.[79] David Cunliffe, leader of the Labour Party, asserted that the public is entitled to be informed.[66]
  • {{flag|European Union}}: In early 2014, the European Parliament's Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs released a draft report which confirmed that the intelligence agencies of New Zealand and Canada have cooperated with the NSA under the Five Eyes programme and may have been actively sharing the personal data of EU citizens.[67][68]

Other international cooperatives

Since the addition of two members in 1956, the specific Five Eyes consist of Australia (accepted 1956), Canada (accepted 1948), New Zealand (accepted 1956), the United Kingdom (co-creator 1946), and the United States (co-creator 1946).[69][70] Further, there is a group of nations termed '3rd Party Partners', which share their intelligence with the 5 Eyes.

While the Five Eyes is a very specific agreement with specific operations amongst the five nations, other non-FVEY sharing agreements have been set up independently and for specific purposes. For example, according to Edward Snowden, the NSA has a "massive body" called the Foreign Affairs Directorate that is responsible for partnering with foreign countries.[71]

Six Eyes

According to the news magazine L'Obs, in 2009, the United States proposed to France to join the Five Eyes, that would then have become the "Six Eyes". Nicolas Sarkozy however made the requirement to be granted the same status as other allies, including the signing of a "no-spy agreement". This requirement was approved by the director of the NSA, but not by the director of the CIA, and furthermore not by President Barack Obama, resulting in a refusal from France.[72]

In 2013 it was reported that Germany was interested in joining the Five Eyes alliance.[73][74] At that time, several members of the United States Congress, including Tim Ryan and Charles Dent, were pushing for Germany's entrance to the Five Eyes alliance.[75]

Israel is, reportedly, an observer in Five Eyes.[76]Singapore is reported to have partnered with the Five Eyes.[77]Japan is, reportedly, collaborating with Five Eyes.[78]
Eight Eyes (Five Eyes Plus Three)

Five Eyes and, reportedly, three nations, Japan, Germany and France, built a coalition sharing information in early 2018 to counter fears including cyberattacks from China.

[79][80]
Nine Eyes

The Nine Eyes is a different arrangement that consists of the same members of Five Eyes working with Denmark, France, the Netherlands and Norway.[69][70]

Fourteen Eyes

According to a document leaked by Edward Snowden, there is another working agreement amongst 14 nations officially known as SIGINT Seniors Europe, or "SSEUR".[81] These "14 Eyes" consist of the same members of Nine Eyes plus Belgium, Germany, Italy, Spain and Sweden.[69][70]

Further intelligence sharing collaborations

As spelled out by Privacy International, there are a number of issue-specific intelligence agreements that include some or all the above nations and numerous others, such as:[82][83]

  • An area specific sharing amongst the 41 nations that formed the allied coalition in Afghanistan;
  • A shared effort of the Five Eyes nations in "focused cooperation" on computer network exploitation with Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey;
  • Club of Berne: 17 members including primarily European States; the US is not a member;
  • The Counterterrorist Group: a wider membership than the 17 European States that make up the Club of Berne, and includes the US;
  • NATO Special Committee: made up of the heads of the security services of NATO's 28 member countries;

List of FVEY surveillance targets

{{main|List of people under Five Eyes surveillance}}

Notable individuals

As the surveillance capabilities of the FVEY continue to increase to keep up to pace with technological advancements, a global surveillance system has been gradually developed to capture the communications of entire populations across national borders.[84] The following list contains a handful of targets of the FVEY who are public figures in various fields. In order for a person to be included in the list, there must be well-documented evidence based on reliable sources, such as leaked or declassified documents or whistleblower accounts, which demonstrate that the person involved is, or was, intentionally targeted for FVEY surveillance.

PictureNameLifetimeSurveillance agenciesNotesRef.
Charlie|Chaplin}} 1889–1977
  • MI5
  • FBI
 A British comedian, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the silent era, Charlie Chaplin became one of the most important figures in the film industry through his screen persona "the Tramp". Due to his alleged ties to communism, he was placed under surveillance in the early 1950s by MI5 agents, who acted on behalf of the FBI as part of a campaign to banish him from the United States.[85][86][87]
Strom|Thurmond}} 1902–2003
  • Various
 A Dixiecrat candidate in the 1948 U.S. presidential election, Strom Thurmond represented South Carolina in the United States Senate from 1954 until 2003, when he became 100 years old and was recognized at that time as the longest-serving senator in U.S. history. In 1988, Margaret Newsham, a Lockheed employee, told a closed-door session of the United States Congress that Thurmond's telephone calls were being intercepted by the FVEY via their ECHELON surveillance system.[88][89][90]
Nelson|Mandela}} 1918–2013
  • CIA
  • SIS
 A South African activist, lawyer, and philanthropist who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999, Nelson Mandela was denounced as a terrorist by critics and was placed under surveillance by British SIS agents. In 1962, Mandela was arrested after details of his terrorist activities were picked up by the CIA and handed over to local authorities.[91][92][93][94]
Jane|Fonda }} 1937–
  • GCHQ
  • NSA
 An American actress, writer, political activist and former fashion model. Due to her political activism, her communications as well as those of her husband, Tom Hayden, were intercepted by GCHQ and handed over to the NSA.[95][96]
Ali|Khamenei}} 1939–
  • GCHQ
  • NSA
 A Shia cleric and a former President of Iran, Ali Khamenei is the current Supreme Leader of Iran. During a rare visit to Iranian Kurdistan in 2009, he and his entourage were targeted for surveillance under a high-tech espionage mission involving the analysis and processing of satellite imagery. The operation was jointly conducted by GCHQ and the NSA.[97]
John|Lennon}} 1940–1980
  • FBI
  • MI5
 A British musician, songwriter, and a lead singer of The Beatles, John Lennon engaged in anti-war activism through several iconic songs such as "Give Peace a Chance" and "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)". In 1971, he moved to New York City to join activists in the United States to protest against the Vietnam War. Over the next 12 months, the U.S. government launched an extensive surveillance operation to monitor his activities and to deport him back to Britain. The operation was conducted by the FBI with the help of MI5.[98][99][100][101]
Ehud|Olmert}} 1949–
  • GCHQ
  • NSA
 An Israeli politician, lawyer, and a former Mayor of Jerusalem, Ehud Olmert is the 12th Prime Minister of Israel. He and the Israeli Minister of Defense, Ehud Barak, were included in a list of surveillance targets used by GCHQ and the NSA.[102]
Susilo|Bambang Yudhoyono}} 1949–
  • ASD
  • NSA
 A former chief military observer of the United Nation Peacekeeping Force in Bosnia and the former President of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and his wife were placed under surveillance by the ASD, which shared details of the operation with the NSA.[103][104][105]
Angela|Merkel}} 1954–
  • Various
 A German politician, former research scientist, and the Chancellor of Germany since 2005, Angela Merkel's phone communications were monitored by the Special Collection Service, which is part of the STATEROOM surveillance program of the FVEY.[106][107][108]
Diana, |Princess of Wales}}1961–1997
  • GCHQ
  • NSA
 A firm opponent of the international usage of land mines, the Princess of Wales was placed under surveillance by GCHQ and the NSA, which kept a top secret file on her containing more than 1,000 pages. The contents of Diana's NSA file have not been disclosed because of national security concerns.[109][110][111]
Kim|Dotcom}} 1974–
  • FBI
  • GCSB
 A German-Finnish Internet entrepreneur, businessman, and hacktivist, Kim Dotcom (born Kim Schmitz) is the founder of the file hosting service Megaupload. On behalf of the FBI, the GCSB of New Zealand conducted illegal surveillance on Dotcom. Prime Minister John Key later issued an apology for the GCSB's illegal surveillance.[112][113][114][115]

Notable organisations

Airlines
  • Aeroflot[116] (Russia)
Broadcasting networks
  • Al Jazeera[117] (Qatar)
Financial institutions
  • MasterCard[118]{{Failed verification|date=April 2015}} (USA)
  • Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication[118]
  • Visa Inc.[118] (USA)
Multinational corporations
  • Thales Group[139] (France)
Oil corporations
  • Petrobras[119] (Brazil)
  • Total S.A.[139] (France)
Search engines
  • Google[120][121] (USA)
  • Yahoo![122] (USA)
Telecom operators
  • Alcatel-Lucent[123] (France)
  • Belgacom[124] (Belgium)
  • Pacnet[125] (Hong Kong)
United Nations
  • United Nations General Assembly[126]
  • United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research[149]
  • United Nations Children's Fund[139]
  • United Nations Development Programme[127]
  • International Atomic Energy Agency[128]
Universities
  • Tsinghua University[129] (China)
  • The Racah Institute of Physics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem[130] (Israel)

See also

{{Portal|Government of the United States|Intelligence|Cryptography|Mass surveillance}}
  • ABCANZ Armies
  • Air and Space Interoperability Council (Air forces)
  • AUSCANNZUKUS (Navies)
  • Border Five
  • Five Country Conference
  • Five Nations Passport Group
  • The Technical Cooperation Program (technology and science)
  • UKUSA Agreement (signals intelligence)

References

1. ^1 2 {{cite web|last=Cox|first=James|title=Canada and the Five Eyes Intelligence Community|url=http://cdfai.org.previewmysite.com/PDF/Canada%20and%20the%20Five%20Eyes%20Intelligence%20Community.pdf|publisher=Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute|date=December 2012}}
2. ^{{cite web|title=Five Eyes |url=http://usacac.army.mil/cac2/call/thesaurus/toc.asp?id=37622 |publisher=United States Army Combined Arms Center |accessdate=18 January 2014 |archivedate=2 February 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202105224/http://usacac.army.mil/cac2/call/thesaurus/toc.asp?id=37622 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
3. ^{{cite web|title=PKI Interoperability with FVEY Partner Nations on the NIPRNet |url=http://www.doncio.navy.mil/ContentView.aspx?ID=3978 |publisher=United States Department of the Navy |accessdate=18 January 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201113535/http://www.doncio.navy.mil/ContentView.aspx?ID=3978 |archivedate=1 February 2014 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
4. ^{{cite web|last=Asser|first=Martin|title=Echelon: Big brother without a cause?|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/820758.stm|publisher=BBC|accessdate=28 January 2014|date=6 July 2000}}
5. ^{{cite web|title=Q&A: What you need to know about Echelon|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/1357513.stm|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=28 January 2014|date=29 May 2001}}
6. ^{{cite web|last=Perry|first=Nick|title=Experts say US spy alliance will survive Snowden|url=https://news.yahoo.com/experts-us-spy-alliance-survive-snowden-104228309.html|publisher=Associated Press|accessdate=25 June 2015|date=16 July 2013}}
7. ^{{cite web|last=Farrell|first=Paul|title=History of 5-Eyes – explainer|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/02/history-of-5-eyes-explainer|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=27 January 2014|date=2 December 2013}}
8. ^1 2 {{cite web|last=Norton-Taylor|first=Richard|title=Not so secret: deal at the heart of UK-US intelligence|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/25/intelligence-deal-uk-us-released|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=27 January 2014|date=25 June 2010}}
9. ^{{cite web|last=Cox |first=James |title=Canada and the Five Eyes Intelligence Community |url=http://www.cdfai.org/PDF/Canada%20and%20the%20Five%20Eyes%20Intelligence%20Community.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204055230/http://www.cdfai.org/PDF/Canada%20and%20the%20Five%20Eyes%20Intelligence%20Community.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2013-12-04 |publisher=Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute |date=December 2012 }}
10. ^{{cite news|last=Aldrich|first=Richard|title=Allied code-breakers co-operate – but not always| url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/24/intelligence-sharing-codebreakers-agreement-ukusa| work=The Guardian|date=24 June 2010|accessdate=25 June 2010}}
11. ^1 {{cite web|title=Q&A: What you need to know about Echelon|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/1357513.stm|publisher=BBC|date=29 May 2001}}
12. ^{{cite web|last=Norton-Taylor|first=Richard|title=GCHQ by Richard Aldrich, Securing the State by David Omand|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2010/jun/19/gchq-intelligence-richard-aldrich|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=30 January 2014|date=19 June 2010|quote=The US was especially keen on GCHQ's station in Hong Kong, particularly during the Vietnam war}}
13. ^{{cite web|first=Duncan|last=Campbell|title=Inside Echelon|url=http://www.heise.de/tp/artikel/6/6929/1.html|publisher=Heise Online|accessdate=19 December 2013|date=25 July 2000}}
14. ^{{cite web|first=George|last=Jones|title=How France helped us win Falklands war|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1387576/How-France-helped-us-win-Falklands-war-by-John-Nott.html|publisher=The Daily Telegraph|date=13 Mar 2002}}
15. ^1 {{cite web|first=Robert|last=Milliken|title=Canberra spy link to MI6 alleged|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/canberra-spy-link-to-mi6-alleged-1395867.html|publisher=The Independent|date=23 February 1994}}
16. ^{{cite web|title=Norsk lyttestasjon viktig brikke i Falklandskrigen |url=http://www.nrk.no/programmer/tv/brennpunkt/1861285.html |publisher=Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation |language=Norwegian |date=21 May 2002 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629035444/http://www.nrk.no/programmer/tv/brennpunkt/1861285.html |archivedate=29 June 2009 |df= }}
17. ^{{cite web|last=Sanchez|first=Raf|title=British diplomats tried to suppress details of SIS role in Iran coup|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/10253384/British-diplomats-tried-to-suppress-details-of-MI6-role-in-Iran-coup.html|publisher=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=27 January 2014|date=19 August 2013}}
18. ^{{cite web|first=James|last=Risen|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/16/world/secrets-history-cia-iran-special-report-plot-convulsed-iran-53-79.html |title=Secrets Of History: The C.I.A. in Iran—A special report. How a Plot Convulsed Iran in '53 (and in '79)|work=The New York Times |date=16 April 2000|accessdate=22 August 2013}}
19. ^{{cite web|title=Declassified Documents Reveal CIA Role In 1953 Iranian Coup|url=https://www.npr.org/2013/09/01/217976304/declassified-documents-reveal-cia-role-in-1953-iranian-coup|publisher=NPR|accessdate=27 January 2014|date=1 September 2013}}
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105. ^{{cite web|last=McGregor|first=Richard|title=Australia’s Abbott has his Merkel moment|url=http://blogs.ft.com/the-world/2013/11/australias-abbott-has-his-merkel-moment/|publisher=Financial Times|accessdate=21 January 2014|date=20 November 2013}}
106. ^{{cite web|title=Cover Story: How NSA Spied on Merkel Cell Phone from Berlin Embassy|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/cover-story-how-nsa-spied-on-merkel-cell-phone-from-berlin-embassy-a-930205.html|publisher=Der Spiegel|date=27 October 2013|accessdate=19 January 2014}}
107. ^{{cite web|title=US bugged Merkel's phone from 2002 until 2013, report claims|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24690055|publisher=BBC|date=27 October 2013|accessdate=18 January 2014}}
108. ^{{cite web|last=Campbell|first=Duncan|title=Revealed: Britain's 'secret listening post in the heart of Berlin'|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/revealed-britains-secret-listening-post-in-the-heart-of-berlin-8921548.html|publisher=The Independent|accessdate=19 January 2014 |author2=Cahal Milmo |author3=Kim Sengupta |author4=Nigel Morris |author5=Tony Patterson|date=5 November 2013}}
109. ^{{cite web|first=Vernon|last=Loeb|title=NSA Admits to Spying on Princess Diana|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/dec98/diana12.htm|publisher=The Washington Post|accessdate=18 January 2014|date=12 December 1998}}
110. ^{{cite web|title=Top secret US files could hold clues to death of Diana|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/jan/11/monarchy.jamiedoward|publisher=The Guardian|date=11 January 2004|accessdate=18 January 2014}}
111. ^{{cite web|first=Nick|last=Allen|title=Diana's Squidgygate tapes 'leaked by GCHQ'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1575117/Dianas-Squidgygate-tapes-leaked-by-GCHQ.html|publisher=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=18 January 2014|date=9 January 2008}}
112. ^{{cite web|title=Court says Kim Dotcom can sue New Zealand spy agency|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21695978|publisher=BBC|accessdate=19 January 2014|date=7 March 2013}}
113. ^{{cite web|first=Rebecca|last=Quilliam|title=GCSB spying illegal, but no charges laid|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11116460|publisher=The New Zealand Herald|date=29 August 2013|accessdate=18 January 2014}}
114. ^{{cite web|title=No charges laid over GCSB's illegal spying of Dotcom|url=http://tvnz.co.nz/national-news/no-charges-laid-over-gcsb-s-illegal-spying-dotcom-5548375|publisher=Television New Zealand|date=29 August 2013|accessdate=18 January 2014}}
115. ^{{cite web|title=John Key apologises to Kim Dotcom|url=http://tvnz.co.nz/politics-news/john-key-apologises-kim-dotcom-5105817|publisher=Television New Zealand|date=27 September 2012|accessdate=18 January 2014}}
116. ^{{cite web|title=NSA hacked Al-Jazeera and Russia's Aeroflot – report|url=http://rt.com/news/nsa-jazeera-aeroflot-spy-272/|publisher=Russia Today|accessdate=23 October 2013}}
117. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nsa-spied-on-al-jazeera-communications-snowden-document-a-919681.html|title= Snowden Document: NSA Spied On Al Jazeera Communications|quote=|date=31 August 2013|accessdate=31 August 2013|author=Staff}}
118. ^1 2 {{cite web|title='Follow the Money': NSA Spies on International Payments|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/spiegel-exclusive-nsa-spies-on-international-bank-transactions-a-922276.html|publisher=Der Spiegel|accessdate=23 October 2013}}
119. ^{{cite web|last=ROMERO|first=SIMON|title=N.S.A. Spied on Brazilian Oil Company, Report Says|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/09/world/americas/nsa-spied-on-brazilian-oil-company-report-says.html?_r=0|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=9 September 2013}}
120. ^{{cite web|last=Ryan Gallagher|title=New Snowden Documents Show NSA Deemed Google Networks a "Target"|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2013/09/09/shifting_shadow_stormbrew_flying_pig_new_snowden_documents_show_nsa_deemed.html|publisher=Slate|accessdate=23 October 2013}}
121. ^{{cite web|last=Bradley Brooks|title=Snowden leaks reveal U.S. spying on Google, Brazil's state oil company: report|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/snowden-leaks-reveal-us-spying-on-google-brazils-state-oil-company-report/article14184384/|archive-url=https://archive.is/20131024014124/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/snowden-leaks-reveal-us-spying-on-google-brazils-state-oil-company-report/article14184384/|dead-url=yes|archive-date=24 October 2013|publisher=The Globe and Mail|accessdate=23 October 2013}}
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123. ^{{cite web|title=France in the NSA's crosshair : Wanadoo and Alcatel targeted|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/technologies/article/2013/10/21/france-in-the-nsa-s-crosshair-wanadoo-and-alcatel-targeted_3499739_651865.html|work=Le Monde|accessdate=23 October 2013}}
124. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/belgian-prime-minister-angry-at-claims-of-british-spying-a-923583.html|title= Cyber Attack: Belgians Angered by British Spying|author= Schmitz, Gregor-Peter|date=20 September 2013|accessdate=20 September 2013}}
125. ^Lam, Lana (23 June 2013). "US hacked Pacnet, Asia Pacific fibre-optic network operator, in 2009". South China Morning Post (Hong Kong). Retrieved 25 June 2013.
126. ^{{cite web|last=Laura Poitras, Marcel Rosenbach and Holger Stark|title=Codename 'Apalachee': How America Spies on Europe and the UN|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/secret-nsa-documents-show-how-the-us-spies-on-europe-and-the-un-a-918625-2.html|page=2|work=Der Spiegel|accessdate=August 26, 2013}}
127. ^1 2 3 {{cite web|title=New NSA leaks reveal US, UK spied on top officials in 60 nations|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20131220-snowden-leaks-nsa-britain-us-spying-officials-eu-israel/|publisher=France 24|accessdate=20 December 2013}}
128. ^{{cite web|last=Dafna Linzer|title=IAEA Leader's Phone Tapped|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57928-2004Dec11.html|work=The Washington Post|accessdate=21 September 2013}}
129. ^{{cite web|title=Edward Snowden: US government has been hacking Hong Kong and China for years|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1259508/edward-snowden-us-government-has-been-hacking-hong-kong-and-china?page=all|work=South China Morning Post|accessdate=9 September 2013}}
130. ^1 {{cite web|last=James Glanz and Andrew W. Lehren|title=N.S.A. Dragnet Included Allies, Aid Groups and Business Elite|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/21/world/nsa-dragnet-included-allies-aid-groups-and-business-elite.html|work=The New York Times|accessdate=20 December 2013}}

External links

  • UKUSA Agreement at The National Archives
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20130702172840/http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/ukusa.shtml UKUSA Agreement] at the National Security Agency

6 : Anglosphere|Global surveillance|Espionage|Intelligence operations|National security|Espionage scandals and incidents
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