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词条 Chili pepper
释义

  1. History

      Chili peppers reach Asia  

  2. Production

  3. Species and cultivars

  4. Intensity

     Common peppers   Notable hot chili peppers  

  5. Uses

      Culinary uses    Ornamental plants    Psychology    Medicinal    Chemical irritants    Crop defense    Food defense  

  6. Nutritional value

  7. Spelling and usage

  8. Gallery

  9. See also

  10. References

  11. External links

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|name = Chili
|image = Madame Jeanette and other chillies.jpg
|image_caption =
|parent_authority = L.
|taxon = Capsicum annuum
|authority = L.
|synonyms_ref = [1]
|synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets = true
|title=Synonymy
|Capsicum buforumSalisb.

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The chili pepper (also chile, chile pepper, chilli pepper, or chilli[2]) from Nahuatl chīlli ({{IPA-nah|ˈt͡ʃiːli|-|Chilli.ogg}}) is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum which are members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae.[3] Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as a spice to add heat to dishes. The substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin and related compounds known as capsaicinoids.

Chili peppers originated in Mexico.[4] After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, used for both food and traditional medicine.

Cultivars grown in North America and Europe are believed to all derive from Capsicum annuum, and have white, yellow, red or purple to black fruits. In 2016, world production of raw green chili peppers was 34.5 million tonnes, with China producing half of the world total.[5]

History

Capsicum fruits have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC, and are one of the oldest cultivated crops in the Americas,[5] as origins of cultivating chili peppers are traced to northeastern Mexico some 6,000 years ago.[6][7] They were one of the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America.[5]

Peru is considered the country with the highest cultivated Capsicum diversity because it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times.[8] Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers is consumed. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits including C. eximium, C. cardenasii, C. eshbaughii, and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties.[8]Christopher Columbus was one of the first Europeans to encounter them (in the Caribbean), and called them "peppers" because they, like black pepper of the genus Piper known in Europe, have a spicy, hot taste unlike other foodstuffs. Diego Álvarez Chanca, a physician on Columbus' second voyage to the West Indies in 1493, brought the first chili peppers to Spain and first wrote about their medicinal effects in 1494. Upon their introduction into Europe, chilies were grown as botanical curiosities in the gardens of Spanish and Portuguese monasteries. Christian monks experimented with the culinary potential of chili and discovered that their pungency offered a substitute for black peppercorns.[9]

Paprika is a ground spice made from dried red fruits of the larger and sweeter varieties of the plant Capsicum annuum,[10] called bell pepper or sweet pepper. Originating in central Mexico, paprika was brought to Spain in the 16th century. The trade in paprika expanded from the Iberian Peninsula to Africa and Asia,[11]{{rp|8}} and ultimately reached Central Europe through the Balkans, then under Ottoman rule, which explains the Hungarian origin of the English term.

Chili peppers reach Asia

The spread of chili peppers to Asia was most likely a natural consequence of its introduction to Portuguese traders; who, aware of its trade value, would have likely promoted its commerce in the Asian spice trade routes then dominated by Portuguese and Arab traders.[12] It was introduced in India by the Portuguese towards the end of 15th century.[13] Today chilies are an integral part of Indian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian cuisines.

The chili pepper features heavily in the cuisine of the Goan region of India, which was the site of a Portuguese colony (e.g., vindaloo, an Indian interpretation of a Portuguese dish).

Production

Green chili production – 2016
Country(millions of tonnes)
{{CHN}}
17.4
{{MEX}}
2.7
{{TUR}}
2.5
{{EU}}
2.3
{{IDN}}
2.0
{{ESP}}
1.1
{{USA}}
0.9
World
34.5
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[5]

Worldwide in 2016, 34.5 million tonnes of green chili peppers and 3.9 million tonnes of dried chili peppers were produced.[14] China was the world's largest producer of green chilis, providing half of the global total. Global production of dried chili peppers was about one ninth of fresh production, led by India with 36% of the world total.[14]

Species and cultivars

{{See also|List of Capsicum cultivars}}

There are five domesticated species of chili peppers. Capsicum annuum includes many common varieties such as bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeños, chiltepin, and all forms of New Mexico chile. Capsicum frutescens includes malagueta, tabasco and Thai peppers, piri piri, and Malawian Kambuzi. Capsicum chinense includes the hottest peppers such as the naga, habanero, Datil and Scotch bonnet. Capsicum pubescens includes the South American rocoto peppers. Capsicum baccatum includes the South American aji peppers .[15]

Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of C. annuum, immature peppers being green. In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which when dried is referred to as ancho), New Mexico, serrano, and other cultivars.

Peppers are commonly broken down into three groupings: bell peppers, sweet peppers, and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or as a cross between them.

Intensity

The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids.[16][17] The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and on growing conditions. Water stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, by absorbing low water for example, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.[18]

When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived.[19] The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU). Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating.[20] The modern method is a quantitative analysis of SHU using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to directly measure the capsaicinoid content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.

Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators and microbes, in particular a fusarium fungus carried by hemipteran insects that attack certain species of chili peppers, according to one study.[21] Peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungal predation on the plant's seeds.[21]

Common peppers

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:

Bell pepper 0 SHU
New Mexico green chile 0–70,000 SHU
Fresno, jalapeño 3,500–10,000 SHU
Cayenne 30,000–50,000 SHU
Piri piri 50,000–100,000 SHU
Habanero, Scotch bonnet, bird's eye 100,000–350,000 SHU[22]

Notable hot chili peppers

Some of the world's hottest chili peppers are:

  • {{Flaglist|United States}} | Pepper X | 3.18M SHU[23]
  • {{Flaglist|Wales}} | Dragon's Breath | 2.4M SHU[24]
  • {{Flaglist|United States}} | Carolina Reaper | 2.2M SHU[25]
  • {{Flaglist|Trinidad}} | Trinidad moruga scorpion | 2.0M SHU[26]
  • {{Flaglist|India}} | Bhut jolokia (Ghost pepper) | 1.58M SHU[27]
  • {{Flaglist|Trinidad}} | Trinidad Scorpion Butch T | 1.463M SHU[28]
  • {{Flaglist|England}} | Naga Viper | 1.4M SHU[29]
  • {{Flaglist|England}} | Infinity chili | 1.2M SHU[30]

Uses

Culinary uses

Chili pepper pods, which are berries, are used fresh or dried. Chilies are dried to preserve them for long periods of time, which may also be done by pickling.

Dried chilies are often ground into powders, although many Mexican dishes including variations on chiles rellenos use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle is the smoked, dried, ripe jalapeño.

Many fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.

The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all other Solanaceous crops have toxins in their leaves, chili peppers do not.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruit, are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola.[31] In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi.[32] In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and also cooked in tsukudani style for preservation.

Chili is a staple fruit in Bhutan. Bhutanese call this crop ema (in Dzongkha) or solo (in Sharchop). The ema datsi recipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese.

In India, most households always keep a stock of fresh hot green chilies at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes. It is typically lightly fried with oil in the initial stages of preparation of the dish. Some states in India, such as Rajasthan, make entire dishes only by using spices and chilies.{{Citation needed|reason=Give an example of such a dish.|date=July 2017}}

Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable dishes other than the ones mentioned elsewhere in this article include:

  • Arrabbiata sauce from Italy is a tomato-based sauce for pasta always including dried hot chilies.
  • Puttanesca sauce is tomato-based with olives, capers, anchovy and, sometimes, chilies.
  • Paprikash from Hungary uses significant amounts of mild, ground, dried chilies, known as paprika, in a braised chicken dish.
  • Chiles en nogada from the Puebla region of Mexico uses fresh mild chilies stuffed with meat and covered with a creamy nut-thickened sauce.
  • Curry dishes usually contain fresh or dried chiles.
  • Kung pao chicken (Mandarin Chinese: 宫保鸡丁 gōng bǎo jī dīng) from the Sichuan region of China uses small hot dried chilies briefly fried in oil to add spice to the oil then used for frying.
  • Mole poblano from the city of Puebla in Mexico uses several varieties of dried chilies, nuts, spices, and fruits to produce a thick, dark sauce for poultry or other meats.
  • Nam phrik are traditional Thai chili pastes and sauces, prepared with chopped fresh or dry chilies, and additional ingredients such as fish sauce, lime juice, and herbs, but also fruit, meat or seafood.
  • 'Nduja, a more typical example of Italian spicy specialty, from the region of Calabria, is a soft pork sausage made "hot" by the addition of the locally grown variety of jalapeño chili.
  • Paprykarz szczeciński is a Polish fish paste with rice, onion, tomato concentrate, vegetable oil, chili pepper powder and other spices.
  • Sambal terasi or sambal belacan is a traditional Indonesian and Malay hot condiment made by frying a mixture of mainly pounded dried chili s, with garlic, shallots, and fermented shrimp paste. It is customarily served with rice dishes and is especially popular when mixed with crunchy pan-roasted ikan teri or ikan bilis (sun-dried anchovies), when it is known as sambal teri or sambal ikan bilis. Various sambal variants existed in Indonesian archipelago, among others are sambal badjak, sambal oelek, sambal pete (prepared with green stinky beans) and sambal pencit (prepared with unripe green mango).
  • Som tam, a green papaya salad from Thai and Lao cuisine, traditionally has, as a key ingredient, a fistful of chopped fresh hot Thai chili, pounded in a mortar.

Fresh or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment—usually bottled when commercially available—that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa from North Africa, chili oil from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha from Thailand. Dried chilies are also used to infuse cooking oil.

Ornamental plants

The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant.

  • Black pearl pepper: small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves
  • Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits [33]
  • Bishop's crown pepper, Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop’s crown or a red Christmas bell[34]

Psychology

Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any risk of bodily harm.[35]

Medicinal

Capsaicin, the chemical in chili peppers that makes them hot, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain.[36]

Chemical irritants

{{Main|Pepper spray}}{{Main|Tear gas}}

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in manufacturing pepper spray and tear gas as chemical irritants, forms of less-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds.[37] Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.[37]

Crop defense

Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin, the chemical in chilies that makes them hot. Because the elephants have a large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system, the smell of the chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the pungent fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.[38]

Food defense

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a specific pain receptor in mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers.[39]

Nutritional value

{{nutritionalvalue | name=Peppers, hot chili, red, raw | source_usda=1 | water=88 g | kJ=166 | protein=1.9 g | fat=0.4 g | carbs=8.8 g | fiber=1.5 g | sugars=5.3 g | right=1 | vitC_mg=144 | vitA_ug=48 | betacarotene_ug=534 | vitB6_mg=0.51 | potassium_mg=322 | magnesium_mg=23 | iron_mg=1|opt1n=Capsaicin|opt1v = 0.01g – 6 g }}

While red chilies contain large amounts of vitamin C (table), other species contain significant amounts of provitamin A beta-carotene.[40] In addition, peppers are a rich source of vitamin B6 (see table).

Spelling and usage

The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all of which are recognized by dictionaries.

  • Chili is widely used in historically Anglophone regions of the United States[41] and Canada.[42] However, it is also commonly used as a short name for chili con carne (literally "chili with meat"). Most versions are seasoned with chili powder, which can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a mixture containing other spices.
  • Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries,[43] as well as some parts of the United States and Canada, which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United States (particularly New Mexico), chile also denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce made from this fruit, available in red and green varieties, and served over the local food, while chili denotes the meat dish. The plural is chile or chiles.
  • Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chīlli) and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary, although it also lists chile and chili as variants.[44] Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore and South Africa.[45][46]

The name of the plant is almost certainly unrelated to that of Chile, the country, which has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names.[47] Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are some of the Spanish-speaking countries where chilies are known as ají, a word of Taíno origin.

Though pepper originally referred to the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the latter usage is included in English dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary (sense 2b of pepper) and Merriam-Webster.[48] The word pepper is also commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of chili plants and their fruits.

Gallery

See also

{{Portal|Chili peppers|Food|Herbs and spices}}{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
  • Chili grenade, a type of weapon made with chili peppers
  • Dragon's Breath (chili pepper)
  • Hatch, New Mexico, known as the "Chile Capital of the World"
  • History of chocolate, which the Mayans drank with ground chili peppers
  • International Connoisseurs of Green and Red Chile, organization for the promotion of chili peppers
  • Peppersoup
  • Ristra, an arrangement of dried chili pepper pods
  • Sweet chili sauce, a condiment for adding a sweet, mild heat taste to food
  • Taboo food and drink, which in some cultures includes chili peppers
{{div col end}}

References

1. ^The Plant List, Capsicum annuum L.
2. ^{{cite news| url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/features/et-sunday-magazine/indian-chilli-displacing-jalapenos-in-global-cuisine/articleshow/8190311.cms |work=The Times Of India | title=Indian chilli displacing jalapenos in global cuisine – The Economic Times | date=8 May 2011 | first1=Reshmi R | last1=Dasgupta}}
3. ^{{cite web | title = HORT410. Peppers – Notes | publisher = Purdue University Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture | url = http://www.hort.purdue.edu/rhodcv/hort410/pepper/pe00001.htm | quote = Common name: pepper. Latin name: Capsicum annuum L. ... Harvested organ: fruit. Fruit varies substantially in shape, pericarp thickness, color and pungency. | accessdate =20 October 2009}}
4. ^{{cite journal|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/111/17/6165.full|title=Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico|date=4 December 2013|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|accessdate=4 November 2016|doi=10.1073/pnas.1308933111|volume=111|issue=17|pages=6165–6170|pmid=24753581|pmc=4035960 | last1 = Kraft | first1 = KH | last2 = Brown | first2 = CH | last3 = Nabhan | first3 = GP | last4 = Luedeling | first4 = E | last5 = Luna Ruiz | first5 = Jde J | last6 = Coppens | last7 = d'Eeckenbrugge | first7 = G | last8 = Hijmans | first8 = RJ | last9 = Gepts | first9 = P}}
5. ^1 {{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html|author=Bosland, P.W. | date = 1998 | chapter = Capsicums: Innovative uses of an ancient crop | pages = 479–487 | editor = J. Janick | title = Progress in New Crops | publisher = ASHS Press |location=Arlington, VA |accessdate=23 December 2010}}
6. ^{{cite journal|pmc=4035960|year=2014|last1=Kraft|first1=K. H.|title=Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=111|issue=17|pages=6165–6170|last2=Brown|first2=C. H.|last3=Nabhan|first3=G. P.|last4=Luedeling|first4=E.|last5=Luna Ruiz|first5=J. D.|last6=Coppens d'Eeckenbrugge|first6=G.|last7=Hijmans|first7=R. J.|last8=Gepts|first8=P.|pmid=24753581|doi=10.1073/pnas.1308933111|bibcode=2014PNAS..111.6165K}}
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/uoc--bot041614.php |title= Birthplace of the domesticated chili pepper identified in Mexico |publisher= EurekaAlert, American Association for the Advancement of Science|date=April 21, 2014}}
8. ^1 {{cite journal |year = 2015 |title = Screening genetic resources of Capsicum peppers in their primary center of diversity in Bolivia and Peru |journal = PLoS ONE |volume = 10 |issue = 9 |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0134663 |vauthors=van Zonneveld M, Ramirez M, Williams D, Petz M, Meckelmann S, Avila T, Bejarano C, Rios L, Jäger M, Libreros D, Amaya K, Scheldeman X |pages=e0134663 |pmid=26402618 |pmc=4581705 |bibcode = 2015PLoSO..1034663V }}
9. ^{{cite book |last1=Bosland |first1=Paul W. |last2=Votava |first2=Eric |title=Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums |date=2000 |publisher=CABI |location=New York City |isbn=9780851993355 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ESCNZMvMAYAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=November 29, 2018 |language=en}}
10. ^{{cite web |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/pepper |title=pepper |publisher= |accessdate=April 7, 2017 |via=The Free Dictionary}}
11. ^{{cite book |last1=Andrews |first1=Jean |title=Peppers: The Domesticated Capsicums |date=1995 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas |isbn=9780292704671 |page=8 |edition=New |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SsjvX31EMekC&q=paprika#v=snippet&q=paprika&f=false |accessdate=October 20, 2016}}
12. ^{{cite book | last = Collingham| first = Elizabeth | title = Curry | publisher = Oxford University Press |date=February 2006 | isbn = 978-0-09-943786-4 }}
13. ^{{cite book|author1=N.Mini Raj |author2=K.V.Peter E.V.Nybe |title=Spices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHs6ANrJ-MEC&pg=PA107|date=1 January 2007|publisher=New India Publishing|isbn=978-81-89422-44-8|pages=107–}}
14. ^1 2 3 {{cite web|title=Chili production in 2016; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Green Chillies and Peppers from pick lists|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)|accessdate=3 December 2018|date=2017}}
15. ^{{cite book |last1=Normah |first1=M. N. |last2=Chin |first2=H. F. |last3=Reed |first3=Barbara M. |title=Conservation of tropical plant species |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=9781461437758 |page=397 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=p9MKNopksAgC |accessdate=November 28, 2018 |language=en}}
16. ^S Kosuge, Y Inagaki, H Okumura (1961). Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part VIII. On the chemical constitutions of the pungent principles. Nippon Nogei Kagaku Kaishi (J. Agric. Chem. Soc.), 35, 923–927; (en) Chem. Abstr. 1964, 60, 9827g.
17. ^(ja) S Kosuge, Y Inagaki (1962) Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part XI. Determination and contents of the two pungent
18. ^{{cite journal|last1=Ruiz-Lau|first1=Nancy|last2=Medina-Lara|first2=Fátima|last3=Minero-García|first3=Yereni|last4=Zamudio-Moreno|first4=Enid|last5=Guzmán-Antonio|first5=Adolfo|last6=Echevarría-Machado|first6=Ileana|last7=Martínez-Estévez|first7=Manuel|title=Water Deficit Affects the Accumulation of Capsaicinoids in Fruits of Capsicum chinense Jacq.|journal=HortScience|date=1 March 2011|volume=46|issue=3|pages=487–492|url=http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/46/3/487.full|language=en|issn=0018-5345}}
19. ^{{cite journal|pmc=3462993|year=2012|author1=O'Neill|first1=J|title=Unravelling the Mystery of Capsaicin: A Tool to Understand and Treat Pain|journal=Pharmacological Reviews|volume=64|issue=4|pages=939–971|last2=Brock|first2=C|last3=Olesen|first3=A. E.|last4=Andresen|first4=T|last5=Nilsson|first5=M|last6=Dickenson|first6=A. H.|doi=10.1124/pr.112.006163|pmid=23023032}}
20. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm |title=History of the Scoville Scale | FAQS |publisher=Tabasco.Com |accessdate=23 December 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823044606/http://www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm |archivedate=23 August 2010 |df=dmy-all }}
21. ^1 {{cite journal|pmc=2575311|year=2008|last1=Tewksbury|first1=J. J|title=Evolutionary ecology of pungency in wild chilies|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=105|issue=33|pages=11808–11811|last2=Reagan|first2=K. M|last3=Machnicki|first3=N. J|last4=Carlo|first4=T. A|last5=Haak|first5=D. C|last6=Peñaloza|first6=A. L|last7=Levey|first7=D. J|doi=10.1073/pnas.0802691105|pmid=18695236|bibcode=2008PNAS..10511808T}}
22. ^{{cite web|url=http://homecooking.about.com/library/weekly/blhotchiles.htm |title=Chile Pepper Heat Scoville Scale |publisher=Homecooking.about.com |accessdate=14 April 2013}}
23. ^http://www.latimes.com/sns-dailymeal-1812885-pepper-x-worlds-hottest-pepper-hot-sauce-92317-20170923-story.html
24. ^{{Cite web | url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/nature/the-hottest-chilli-in-the-world-was-created-in-wales-accidentally.aspx | title=The Hottest Chilli in the World was Created in Wales Accidentally}}
25. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2013/11/confirmed-smokin-eds-carolina-reaper-sets-new-record-for-hottest-chilli-53033/|title=Confirmed: Smokin Ed's Carolina Reaper sets new record for hottest chilli|publisher=Guinness World Records|date=19 November 2013|accessdate=8 November 2014}}
26. ^[https://www.webcitation.org/67J3MeXUF?url=http://news.yahoo.com/trinidad-moruga-scorpion-wins-hottest-pepper-title-015457622.html "Trinidad Moruga Scorpion wins hottest pepper title"] Retrieved 11 May 2013
27. ^{{cite news |url=http://yourlife.usatoday.com/fitness-food/story/2012-03-11/Chile-Pepper-Institute-studies-whats-hot/53490214/1 |title=Chile Pepper Institute studies what's hot |publisher=USA Today |work=Your life |first=Monika |last=Joshi |date=11 March 2012 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/667FrVkGP?url=http://yourlife.usatoday.com/fitness-food/story/2012-03-11/Chile-Pepper-Institute-studies-whats-hot/53490214/1 |archivedate=12 March 2012 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy }}
28. ^"Aussies grow world's hottest chilli" Retrieved 12 April 2011
29. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/title-of-worlds-hottest-chili-pepper-stolen--again-2225925.html|title=Title of world's hottest chili pepper stolen - again|work=The Independent|date=25 February 2011|accessdate=27 February 2011|location=London}}
30. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12505344|title="Record-breaking" chilli is hot news|publisher=BBC News|author=Henderson, Neil|date=19 February 2011|accessdate=20 February 2011}}
31. ^  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312093900/http://www.tribo.org/vegetables/dahongsili.html|date=12 March 2007}}
32. ^  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114231725/http://sfood.info/cuisine/kimchi/k35.htm|date=14 November 2009}}
33. ^Chilies as Ornamental Plants, Seedsbydesign {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515183915/http://www.seedsbydesign.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1478&Itemid=42 |date=15 May 2013 }}
34. ^Bishop's crown pepper, image, cayennediane
35. ^{{cite journal |last= Paul Rozin1 and Deborah Schiller|year= 1980|title= The nature and acquisition of a preference for chili pepper by humans |journal= Motivation and Emotion |volume= 4 |issue= 1 |pages= 77–101 |url=|doi= 10.1007/BF00995932 |first1= Paul |last2= Schiller |first2= Deborah }}
36. ^{{cite journal|pmid=27367653|pmc=6273101|year=2016|author1=Fattori|first1=V|title=Capsaicin: Current Understanding of Its Mechanisms and Therapy of Pain and Other Pre-Clinical and Clinical Uses|journal=Molecules|volume=21|issue=7|pages=844|last2=Hohmann|first2=M. S.|last3=Rossaneis|first3=A. C.|last4=Pinho-Ribeiro|first4=F. A.|last5=Verri|first5=W. A.|doi=10.3390/molecules21070844|url=http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/21/7/844/htm}}
37. ^1 {{cite journal|pmc=5649076|year=2017|author1=Haar|first1=R. J|title=Health impacts of chemical irritants used for crowd control: A systematic review of the injuries and deaths caused by tear gas and pepper spray|journal=BMC Public Health|volume=17|issue=1|pages=831|last2=Iacopino|first2=V|last3=Ranadive|first3=N|last4=Weiser|first4=S. D|last5=Dandu|first5=M|doi=10.1186/s12889-017-4814-6|pmid=29052530}}
38. ^{{cite web|last=Mott|first=Maryann|title=Elephant Crop Raids Foiled by Chili Peppers, Africa Project Finds|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2006/09/060918-elephants-chili.html|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=23 October 2013}}
39. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Tewksbury | first1 = J. J. | last2 = Nabhan | first2 = G. P. | year = 2001 | title = Directed deterrence by capsaicin in chilies | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 412 | issue = 6845| pages = 403–404 | doi = 10.1038/35086653 | pmid = 11473305 }}
40. ^{{cite journal|pmid=21535519|year=2010|author1=Rodríguez-Burruezo|first1=A|title=Carotenoid composition and vitamin a value in ají (Capsicum baccatum L.) and rocoto (C. Pubescens R. & P.), 2 pepper species from the Andean region|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=75|issue=8|pages=S446–53|last2=González-Mas Mdel|first2=C|last3=Nuez|first3=F|doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01795.x}}
41. ^"chili" from Merriam-Webster; other spellings are listed as variants, with "Chili" identified as "chiefly British"
42. ^The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists chili as the main entry, and labels chile as a variant, and chilli as a British variant.
43. ^{{cite book | last = Heiser| first = Charles | title = Seed To Civilization: The Story of Food | publisher = Cambridge: Harvard University Press|date=August 1990 | isbn = 978-0-674-79681-2 }}
44. ^{{cite web|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/chilli?q=chilli |title=Definition for chilli – Oxford Dictionaries Online (World English) |publisher=Oxforddictionaries.com |accessdate=21 April 2012}}
45. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/agri-biz/article2872144.ece |title=Fall in exports crushes chilli prices in Guntur |publisher=Thehindubusinessline.com |accessdate=21 April 2012}}
46. ^{{cite web|url=http://sundaytimes.lk/100314/Magazine/sundaytimesmagazine_06.html |title=Chilli, Capsicum and Pepper are spicy plants grown for the pod. Green chilli is a culinary requirement in any Sri Lankan household |publisher=Sundaytimes.lk |accessdate=21 April 2012}}
47. ^{{cite web |url=http://chilipedia.org/chili-or-pepper |title=Chili or Pepper? |publisher=Chilipedia.org |accessdate=16 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120075835/http://chilipedia.org/chili-or-pepper |archivedate=20 January 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
48. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=pepper |title=va=pepper – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |publisher=M-w.com |date=13 August 2010 |accessdate=23 December 2010}}

External links

{{Wiktionary|chili}}{{Cookbook|Chilli Pepper}}{{Commons|Capsicum}}
  • WildChilli.EU All about Wild Chili's / Capsicums / Peppers
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20050220140720/http://www.plantcultures.org/plants/chilli_pepper_landing.html Plant Cultures: Chilli pepper botany, history and uses]
  • The Chile Pepper Institute of New Mexico State University
  • Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient Crop
  • Chilli: La especia del Nuevo Mundo (Article from Germán Octavio López Riquelme about biology, nutrition, culture and medical topics. In Spanish)
  • The Hot Pepper List List of chilli pepper varieties ordered by heat rating in Scoville Heat Units (SHU)
{{Chili peppers}}{{Capsicum cultivars}}{{Herbs & spices}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q165199}}{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2014}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Chili Pepper}}

16 : Agriculture in Mesoamerica|Chili peppers|Medicinal plants of Central America|Medicinal plants of South America|Crops originating from Ecuador|Crops originating from Mexico|Crops originating from Peru|Symbols of New Mexico|Leaf vegetables|New Mexican cuisine|Cuisine of the Southwestern United States|Cuisine of the Western United States|Crops originating from the Americas|Indian spices|Crops|Sri Lankan spices
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