“Cree language”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Endonyms are {{lang|cr-Latn|Nēhiyawēwin}} {{lang|cr|ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ}} (Plains Cree), {{lang|cr-Latn|Nīhithawīwin}} {{lang|cr|ᓃᐦᐃᖬᐑᐏᐣ}} (Woods Cree), {{lang|cr-Latn|Nehirâmowin}} (Atikamekw), {{lang|cr-Latn|Nehlueun}} (Western Montagnais, Piyekwâkamî dialect), {{lang|cr-Latn|Ilnu-Aimûn}} (Western Montagnais, Betsiamites dialect), {{lang|cr-Latn|Innu-Aimûn}} (Eastern Montagnais), {{lang|cr-Latn|Iyiniu-Ayamiwin}} {{lang|cr|ᐄᓅ ᐊᔨᒨᓐ}} (Southern East Cree), {{lang|cr-Latn|Iyiyiu-Ayamiwin}} {{lang|cr|ᐄᔨᔫ ᐊᔨᒨᓐ}} (Northern East Cree), {{lang|cr-Latn|Ililîmowin}} {{lang|cr|ᐃᓕᓖᒧᐎᓐ}} (Moose Cree), {{lang|cr-Latn|Ininîmowin}} {{lang|cr|ᐃᓂᓃᒧᐎᓐ}} (Eastern Swampy Cree), and {{lang|cr-Latn|Nēhinawēwin}} {{lang|cr|ᓀᐦᐃᓇᐌᐎᐣ}} (Western Swampy Cree).

Origin and diffusion

Cree is believed to have begun as a dialect of the Proto-Algonquian language spoken 2,500 to 3,000 years ago in the original Algonquian homeland, an undetermined area thought to be near the Great Lakes. The speakers of the proto-Cree language are thought to have moved north, and diverged rather quickly into two different groups on each side of James Bay, after which time, the eastern group began to diverge into separate dialects, whereas the western grouping probably broke into distinct dialects much later.^[7] After this point it is very difficult to make definite statements about how different groups emerged and moved around, because there are no written works in the languages to compare, and descriptions by Europeans are not systematic; as well, Algonquian people have a tradition of bilingualism and even of outright adopting a new language from neighbours.^[8]

A traditional view among 20th century anthropologists and historians of the fur trade posits that the Western Woods Cree and the Plains Cree (and therefore their dialects) did not diverge from other Cree peoples before 1670, when the Cree expanded out of their homeland near James Bay because of access to European firearms. By contrast, James Smith of the Museum of the American Indian stated, in 1987, that the weight of archeological and linguistic evidence puts the Cree as far west as the Peace River Region of Alberta before European contact.^[9]

Loss of language

Cuthand^[10] argues three reasons for the loss of the Cree language. First, residential schools cultivated the prejudice that their language was inferior. While students were still speaking their native language at home, their learning stopped at school. When they left residential schools as adults, they went home and their vocabulary and knowledge of language did not include concepts or forms that an adult speaker who had not been taken to a residential school would have.

Cuthand^[10] also argues that the loss of the Cree language can be attributed to the migration of native families away from the reserve, voluntarily or not. Oftentimes, the elders are left on the reserve. This breaks up the traditional intergenerational flow of lingual knowledge from elder to youth.

The third point Cuthand^[10] argues is that Cree language loss was adopted by the speakers. Parents stopped teaching their children their native language in the belief that doing so would help their children find economic success or avoid discrimination.

Dialect criteria

The Cree dialect continuum can be divided by many criteria. Dialects spoken in northern Ontario and the southern James Bay, Lanaudière, and Mauricie regions of Quebec differentiate {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (sh as in she) and {{IPA|/s/}}, while those to the west have merged the two phonemes as {{IPA|/s/}} and in east the phonemes are merged as either {{IPA|/ʃ/}} or {{IPA|/h/}}. In several dialects, including northern Plains Cree and Woods Cree, the long vowels {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/iː/}} have merged into a single vowel, {{IPA|/iː/}}. In the Quebec communities of Chisasibi, Whapmagoostui, and Kawawachikamach, the long vowel {{IPA|/eː/}} has merged with {{IPA|/aː/}}.

However, the most transparent phonological variation between different Cree dialects are the reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *l in the modern dialects, as shown below:

The Plains Cree, speakers of the y dialect, refer to their language as {{lang|cr-Latn|nēhiyawēwin}}, whereas Woods Cree speakers say {{lang|cr-Latn|nīhithawīwin}}, and Swampy Cree speakers say {{lang|cr-Latn|nēhinawēwin}}.

Another important phonological variation among the Cree dialects involves the palatalisation of Proto-Algonquian *k: East of the Ontario–Quebec border (except for Atikamekw), Proto-Algonquian *k has changed into {{IPA|/tʃ/}} or {{IPA|/ts/}} before front vowels. See the table above for examples in the *kīla column.

Very often the Cree dialect continuum is divided into two languages: Cree and Montagnais. Cree includes all dialects which have not undergone the *k > {{IPA|/tʃ/}} sound change (BC–QC) while Montagnais encompasses the territory where this sound change has occurred (QC–NL). These labels are very useful from a linguistic perspective but are confusing as East Cree then qualifies as Montagnais. For practical purposes, Cree usually covers the dialects which use syllabics as their orthography (including Atikamekw but excluding Kawawachikamach Naskapi), the term Montagnais then applies to those dialects using the Latin script (excluding Atikamekw and including Kawawachikamach Naskapi). The term Naskapi typically refers to Kawawachikamach (y-dialect) and Natuashish (n-dialect).

Dialect groups

The Cree dialects can be broadly classified into nine groups. Roughly from west to east:

Phonology

This table is made to show all possible consonant phonemes that may be included in a Cree language.

In dictionaries focused on Eastern Swampy Cree, Western Swampy Cree may readily substitute ⟨sh⟩ with ⟨s⟩, while Lowland Moose Cree may readily substitute ⟨ñ⟩ with their ⟨l⟩. In dictionaries focused on Southern Plains Cree, Northern Plains Cree may readily substitute ⟨ē⟩ with ⟨ī⟩, while materials accommodating Rocky Cree will indicate the Plains Cree {{IPA|[j]}} that is {{IPA|[ð]}} in Rocky Cree as ⟨ý⟩. Similarly, in dictionaries focused on Western Swampy Cree, Woods Cree may readily substitute ⟨ē⟩ with ⟨ī⟩, while materials accommodating Woods Cree will indicate the Western Swampy Cree {{IPA|[n]}} that is {{IPA|[ð]}} in Woods Cree as ⟨ń⟩. Atikamekw uses ⟨c⟩ [{{IPA|ʃ}}], ⟨tc⟩ [{{IPA|t͡ʃ}}], and ⟨i⟩ [{{IPA|j}}] (which also serves as ⟨i⟩ [{{IPA|i}}]).

Syntax

Cree features a complex polysynthetic morphosyntax. A common grammatical feature in Cree dialects, in terms of sentence structure, is non-regulated word order. Word order is not governed by a specific set of rules or structure; instead, "subjects and objects are expressed by means of inflection on the verb".^[14] Subject, Verb, and Object (SVO) in a sentence can vary in order, for example, SVO, VOS, OVS, and SOV.^[14]^[15]

Obviation is also a key aspect of the Cree language(s). In a sense, the obviative can be defined as any third-person ranked lower on a hierarchy of discourse salience than some other (proximate) discourse-participant. "Obviative animate nouns, [in the Plains Cree dialect for instance], are marked by [a suffix] ending {{lang|cr-Latn|–a}}, and are used to refer to third persons who are more peripheral in the discourse than the proximate third person".^[16] For example:

The suffix {{lang|cr-Latn|-a}} marks Susan as the obviative, or 'fourth' person, the person furthest away from the discourse.^[14]

The Cree language has grammatical gender in a system that classifies nouns as animate or inanimate. The distribution of nouns between animate or inanimate is not phonologically transparent, which means gender must be learned along with the noun.^[14]

As is common in polysynthetic languages, a Cree word can be very long, and express something that takes a series of words in English. For example, the Plains Cree word for "school" is {{lang|cr-Latn|kiskinohamātowikamikw}}, "know.CAUS.APPLICATIVE.RECIPROCAL.place" or the "knowing-it-together-by-example place". This means that changing the word order in Cree can place emphasis on different pieces of the sentence.^[17] Wolfart and Carroll^[17] give the following example by transposing the two Cree words:

Writing

Systems

Cree dialects, except for those spoken in eastern Quebec and Labrador, are traditionally written using Cree syllabics, a variant of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, but can be written with the Latin script as well. Both writing systems represent the language phonetically. Cree is always written from left to right horizontally.^[18] The easternmost dialects are written using the Latin script exclusively. The dialects of Plains Cree, Woods Cree, and western Swampy Cree use Western Cree syllabics and the dialects of eastern Swampy Cree, East Cree, Moose Cree, and Naskapi use Eastern Cree syllabics. In this syllabic system, each symbol, which represents a consonant, can be written four ways, each direction representing its corresponding vowel.^[18] Some dialects of Cree have up to seven vowels, so additional diacritics are placed after the syllabic to represent the corresponding vowels. Finals represent stand-alone consonants.^[18] The Cree language also has two semivowels. The semivowels may follow other consonants or be on their own in a word.^[19]

The following tables show the syllabaries of Eastern and Western Cree dialects, respectively:

Speakers of various Cree dialects have begun creating dictionaries to serve their communities. Some projects, such as the Cree Language Resource Project (CLRP), are developing an online bilingual Cree dictionary for the Cree language.

Punctuation

Cree has not commonly or traditionally used the period (.) at the end of sentences when syllabics are used. Instead, either a full-stop glyph (᙮) or a double em-width space have been used between words to signal the transition from one sentence to the next. In alphabetic writing, the use of punctuation has been inconsistent. For instance, in the Plains Cree dialect, the interrogative enclitic cî can be included in the sentence to mark a yes-no question^[14] such that this is sometimes considered to be sufficient without including a question mark (?). However, in many modern publications and text collections (cf.^[20]) full punctuation is used.

Additionally, other interrogatives (where, when, what, why, who) can be used, as in other languages, and questions marks can thus be used for such questions in Cree as well.^[21]

Contact languages

Cree is also a component language in two contact languages, Michif and Bungi. Both languages were spoken by members of the Métis, the Voyageurs, and European settlers of Western Canada and parts of the Northern United States.

Michif is a mixed language which combines Cree with French. For the most part, Michif uses Cree verbs, question words, and demonstratives while using French nouns. Michif is unique to the Canadian prairie provinces as well as to North Dakota and Montana in the United States.^[22] Michif is still spoken in central Canada and in North Dakota.

Cree has also been incorporated into two other mixed languages within Canada. The Oji-Cree language (also Severn Ojibwe), spoken in parts of Manitoba and western Ontario, is a mixed language of Cree and Ojibwe, and the Nehipwat language, which is a blending of Cree with Assiniboine. Nehipwat is found only in a few southern Saskatchewan reserves and is now nearing extinction. Nothing is known of its structure.^[26]

Legal status

The social and legal status of Cree varies across Canada. Cree is one of the eleven official languages of the Northwest Territories, but is only spoken by a small number of people there in the area around the town of Fort Smith.^[27] It is also one of two principal languages of the regional government of Eeyou Istchee/Baie-James Territory in Northern Quebec, the other being French.^[28]

Support and revitalization

Cree has about 117,000 documented speakers today.^[4] They are still a minority language given the dominance of English and French in Canada. There are programs in place to maintain and revitalize the language, though. In the Quebec James Bay Cree community, a resolution was put into action in 1988 that made Cree the language of education in primary schools and eventually elementary schools.^[29]

The Mistissini council decided to require their employees to learn Cree syllabics in 1991.^[29]

The Cree School Board now has their annual report available in both English and Cree.^[29]

There is a push to increase the availability of Cree stations on the radio.^[29]

In 2013, free Cree language electronic books for beginners became available for Alberta language teachers.^[30]

The Government of the Northwest Territories^[6] releases an annual report on First Nations languages. The 2016–2017 report features successes they have had in revitalizing and supporting and projects they are working on. For example, they released a Medicinal Plant Guide that had information in both Cree and English. An important part of making the guide was input from the elders. Another accomplishment was the dubbing of a movie in Cree. They are working on broadcasting a radio station that "will give listeners music and a voice for our languages".

See also

References

1. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=41&Geo=01|title=Language Highlight Tables, 2016 Census - Aboriginal mother tongue, Aboriginal language spoken most often at home and Other Aboriginal language(s) spoken regularly at home for the population excluding institutional residents of Canada, provinces and territories, 2016 Census – 100% Data|last=Canada|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca|language=en|access-date=2017-11-22}}
2. ^Official Languages of the Northwest Territories {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323114247/http://www.nwtlanguagescommissioner.ca/pdf/Official_Languages_Map.pdf |date=March 23, 2012 }} (map)
3. ^Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh
4. ^¹{{Cite web|url=https://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/en/services/secretariat-des-langues-autochtones/official-languages-overview|title=Education, Culture, and Employment|last=|first=|date=|website=Government of the Northwest Territories|access-date=October 4, 2017}}
5. ^Statistics Canada: 2006 Census {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016163022/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=89189&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=705&Temporal=2006&Theme=70&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |date=October 16, 2013 }}
6. ^¹Government of the Northwest Territories. 2016-2017 annual report on official languages. Retrieved from https://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/sites/www.ece.gov.nt.ca/files/resources/english_version.2016-2017_ol_ar.pdf
7. ^Rhodes and Todd, "Subarctic Algonquian Languages" in Handbook of North American Indians: Subarctic, p. 60
8. ^Rhodes and Todd, 60-61
9. ^{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=James G. E. |title=The Western Woods Cree: Anthropological Myth and Historical Reality |jstor=644951 |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=14 |issue=3 |date=August 1987 |pages=434–48|quote="The weight of evidence now indicates that the Cree were as far west as the Peace River long before the advent of the European fur traders, and that post-contact social organization was not drastically affected by the onset of the fur trade." |doi=10.1525/ae.1987.14.3.02a00020}}
10. ^¹²Cuthand, D. (2007). Askiwina: A Cree world. Regina: Coteau Books.
11. ^Linguasphere code 62-ADA is called "Cree+Ojibwa net", listing four divisions of which three are shown here—the fourth division 62-ADA-d representing the Ojibwe dialects, listed as "Ojibwa+Anissinapek".
12. ^Moseley, Christopher. 2007. Encyclopedia of World's Endangered Languages. {{ISBN|0-203-64565-0}}
13. ^Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
14. ^¹²³⁴Thunder, Dorothy{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
15. ^Dahlstrom, introduction
16. ^Dahlstrom pp. 11
17. ^¹Wolfart, H. C., & Carroll, J. F. (1981). Meet Cree: A guide to the Cree language (New and completely rev. ed.). Edmonton: University of Alberta Press.
18. ^¹²Ager, Simon: Omniglot, Cree Syllabary
19. ^{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8925218|title=Meet Cree : a guide to the Cree language|last=Christoph.|first=Wolfart, H.|date=1981|publisher=University of Alberta Press|others=Carroll, Janet F.|isbn=0888640730|edition=New and completely rev.|location=Edmonton|oclc=8925218}}
20. ^Ahenakew, Freda, and H.C. Wolfart, eds. 1998. [https://uofmpress.ca/books/detail/the-counselling-speeches-of-jim-ka-nipitehtew ana kâ-pimwêwêhahk okakêskihkêmowina / The Counselling Speeches of Jim Kâ-Nîpitêhtêw]. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press. {{ISBN|0-88755-648-5}}
21. ^Okimâsis, Jean, and Arok Wolvengrey. 2008. How to Spell it in Cree. Regina: miywâsin ink. {{ISBN|978-0-9784935-0-9}}
22. ^Bakker and Papen p. 295
23. ^¹Bakker and Papen p. 304
24. ^Carter p. 63
25. ^Blain. (1989: 15)
26. ^Bakker and Papen p. 305
27. ^¹Northwest Territories Official Languages Act, 1988 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324202430/http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/PDF/ACTS/Official_Languages.pdf |date=March 24, 2009 }} (as amended 1988, 1991–1992, 2003)
28. ^{{Cite web |url=http://www.gcc.ca/pdf/LEG000000024.pdf |title=Agreement on Governance in the Eeyou Istchee James Bay Territory Between the Crees of Eeyou Istchee and the Gouvernement du Québec, 2012 |access-date=2012-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011045759/http://www.gcc.ca/pdf/LEG000000024.pdf |archive-date=2017-10-11 |dead-url=yes |df= }}
29. ^¹²³McAlpine, L., & Herodier, D. (1994). Schooling as a vehicle for aboriginal language maintenance: Implementing cree as the language of instruction in northern quebec. Canadian Journal of Education, 19(2), 128. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/215381294
30. ^{{Cite web| last = Betowski| first = Bev| title = E-books show kids the colour of Cree language| work = University of Alberta News & Events| accessdate = 2013-01-31| url = http://www.news.ualberta.ca/article.aspx?id=53FA7A9A77F8439D913A7C08A71B08FB| deadurl = yes| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130130233513/http://www.news.ualberta.ca/article.aspx?id=53FA7A9A77F8439D913A7C08A71B08FB| archivedate = 2013-01-30| df = }}

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