| 词条 | Cushitic languages | ||||||||
| 释义 |
|name=Cushitic |region=Northeast Africa |familycolor=Afro-Asiatic |iso2=cus |protoname=Proto-Cushitic |child1=Beja |child2=Agaw languages (Central) |child3=Dullay |child4=Highland East Cushitic (Sidamic) |child5=Lowland East Cushitic |child6=South Cushitic |iso5=cus |glotto=cush1243 |glottorefname=Cushitic |map=Cushitic_languages.SVG }} The Cushitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken primarily in the Horn of Africa (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia), as well as the Nile Valley (Sudan and Egypt), and parts of the African Great Lakes region (Tanzania and Kenya) by Cushitic peoples. The Cushitic languages with the greatest number of total speakers are Oromo (41 million),[1] Somali (16.2 million),[2] Beja (3.2 million),[3] Sidamo (3 million),[4] and Afar (2 million).[5] Oromo is the working language of the Oromia Region in Ethiopia.[6] Somali is one of two official languages of Somalia, and as such is the only Cushitic language accorded official language status at the country level.[7] It also serves as a language of instruction in Djibouti,[8] and as the working language of the Somali Region in Ethiopia.[6] Beja, Afar, Blin and Saho, the languages of the Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic that are spoken in Eritrea, are languages of instruction in the Eritrean elementary school curriculum.[9] The constitution of Eritrea also recognizes the equality of all natively spoken languages.[10] Additionally, Afar is a language of instruction in Djibouti,[8] as well as the working language of the Afar Region in Ethiopia.[6] The phylum was first designated as Cushitic around 1858.[11] Historical linguistic analysis and archaeogenetics indicate that the languages spoken in the ancient Kerma culture of what is now southern Egypt and northern Sudan,[12][13] as well as those spoken in the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture of the Great Lakes region, likely belonged to the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family.[17] CompositionThe Cushitic languages are usually considered to include the following branches:[14]
This classification has not been without contention, and many other classifications have been proposed over the years.
Divergent languagesBeja is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family, constituting the only member of the Northern Cushitic subgroup. As such, Beja contains a number of linguistic innovations that are unique to it, as is also the situation with the other subgroups of Cushitic (e.g. idiosyncratic features in Agaw or Central Cushitic).[19] Hetzron (1980) argues that Beja therefore may comprise an independent branch of the Afroasiatic family.[20] However, this suggestion has been largely ignored by the linguistic community. The characteristics of Beja that differ from those of other Cushitic languages are instead generally acknowledged as normal branch variation.[19] These unique features are also attributed to the fact that the Beja language, along with the Saho-Afar dialect cluster, are the most conservative forms of Cushitic speech.[21] Joseph Halévy (1873) identified linguistic similarities shared between Beja and other neighboring Cushitic languages (viz. Afar, Agaw, Oromo and Somali). Leo Reinisch subsequently grouped Beja with Saho-Afar, Somali and Oromo in a Lowland Cushitic sub-phylum, representing one half of a two-fold partition of Cushitic. Moreno (1940) proposed a bipartite classification of Beja similar to that of Reinisch, but lumped Beja with both Lowland Cushitic and Central Cushitic. Around the same period, Enrico Cerulli (c. 1950) asserted that Beja constituted an independent sub-group of Cushitic. During the 1960s, Archibald N. Tucker (1960) posited an orthodox branch of Cushitic that comprised Beja, East Cushitic and Agaw, and a fringe branch of Cushitic that included other languages in the phylum. Although also similar to Reinisch's paradigm, Tucker's orthodox-fringe dichotomy was predicated on a different typological approach. Andrzej Zaborski (1976) suggested, on the basis of genetic features, that Beja constituted the only member of the North Cushitic sub-phylum.[22] Due to its linguistic innovations, Robert Hetzron (1980) argued that Beja may constitute an independent branch of the Afroasiatic family.[23] Hetzron's suggestion was arrived at independently,[24] and was criticized or rejected by other linguists (Zaborski 1984[25] & 1997; Tosco 2000;[22] Morin 2001[26]). Appleyard (2004) later also demonstrated that the innovations in Beja, which Hetzron had identified, were centered on a typological argument involving a presumed change in syntax and also consisted of only five differing Cushitic morphological features. Marcello Lamberti (1991) elucidated Cerulli's traditional classification of Beja, juxtaposing the language as the North Cushitic branch alongside three other independent Cushitic sub-phyla, Lowland Cushitic, Central Cushitic and Sidama. Didier Morin (2001) assigned Beja to Lowland Cushitic on the grounds that the language shared lexical and phonological features with the Afar and Saho idioms, and also because the languages were historically spoken in adjacent speech areas. However, among linguists specializing in the Cushitic languages, Cerulli's traditional paradigm is accepted as the standard classification for Beja.[22]There are also a few poorly-classified languages, including Yaaku, Dahalo, Aasax, Kw'adza, Boon, the Cushitic element of Mbugu (Ma'a) and Ongota. There is a wide range of opinions as to how the languages are interrelated.[27] The positions of the Dullay languages and of Yaaku are uncertain. They have traditionally been assigned to an East Cushitic branch along with Highland (Sidamic) and Lowland East Cushitic. However, Hayward thinks that East Cushitic may not be a valid node and that its constituents should be considered separately when attempting to work out the internal relationships of Cushitic.[27] The Afroasiatic identity of Ongota is also broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, because of the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. Harold C. Fleming (2006) proposes that Ongota is a separate branch of Afroasiatic.[28] Bonny Sands (2009) thinks the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco (2003), namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a Nilo-Saharan substratum. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language while retaining some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language.[29][30] Hetzron (1980:70ff)[31] and Ehret (1995) have suggested that the South Cushitic languages ("Rift") are a part of Lowland East Cushitic, the only one of the six groups with much internal diversity. Cushitic was formerly seen as also including the Omotic languages, then called West Cushitic. However, this view has been abandoned. Omotic is generally agreed to be an independent branch of Afroasiatic, primarily due to the work of Harold C. Fleming (1974) and Lionel Bender (1975); some linguists like Paul Newman (1980) challenge Omotic's classification within the Afroasiatic family itself. Extinct languagesA number of extinct populations are thought to have spoken Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic branch. According to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence indicates that the peoples of the Kerma Culture in present-day southern Egypt and northern Sudan spoke Cushitic languages.[32][13] The Nilo-Saharan Nobiin language today contains a number of key pastoralism related loanwords that are of proto-Highland East Cushitic origin, including the terms for sheep/goatskin, hen/cock, livestock enclosure, butter and milk. This in turn suggests that the Kerma population – which, along with the C-Group culture, inhabited the Nile Valley immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers – spoke Afroasiatic languages.[32] Additionally, historiolinguistics indicate that the makers of the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic (Stone Bowl Culture) in the Great Lakes area likely spoke South Cushitic languages.[33] Christopher Ehret (1998) proposes that among these languages were the now extinct Tale and Bisha languages, which were identified on the basis of loanwords.[34] Ancient DNA analysis of a Savanna Pastoral Neolithic fossil excavated at the Luxmanda site in Tanzania likewise found that the specimen carried a large proportion of ancestry related to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic culture of the Levant, similar to that borne by modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations inhabiting the Horn of Africa. This suggests that the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture bearers may have been Cushitic speakers, who were gradually absorbed by neighboring hunter-gatherer communities in the lacustrine region.[35] ReconstructionProto-Cushitic has been reconstructed by Ehret (1987).[36] See also
Notes1. ^{{cite web|title=Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia (2007)|page=118|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114004942/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=264&format=raw&Itemid=521|publisher=Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia|accessdate=22 November 2017}} 2. ^{{cite web|title=Somali|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/som|publisher=Ethnologue|accessdate=22 November 2017}} 3. ^{{cite web|title=Bedawiyet|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bej|publisher=Ethnologue|accessdate=22 November 2017}} 4. ^{{cite web|title=Sidamo|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sid|publisher=Ethnologue|accessdate=22 November 2017}} 5. ^{{cite web|title=Afar|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/aar|publisher=Ethnologue|accessdate=22 November 2017}} 6. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia|pages=2 & 16|url=http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/et/et007en.pdf|publisher=Government of Ethiopia|accessdate=22 November 2017|quote=Members of the Federation may by law determine their respective working languages.[...] Member States of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia are the Following: 1) The State of Tigray 2) The State of Afar 3) The State of Amhara 4) The State of Oromia 5) The State of Somalia 6) The State of Benshangul/Gumuz 7) The State of the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples 8) The State of the Gambela Peoples 9) The State of the Harari People}} 7. ^*{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Somali Republic (as amended up to October 12, 1990)|page=2|url=http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/so/so002en.pdf|publisher=Government of Somalia|accessdate=23 November 2017|quote=Article 4 (Official language) The official languages of the state shall be Somali and Arabic.}}*{{cite web|title=The Federal Republic of Somalia Provisional Constitution|page=10|url=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/Somalia-Constitution2012.pdf|publisher=Government of Somalia|accessdate=22 November 2017|quote=Article 5. Official Languages[...] The official language of the Federal Republic of Somalia is Somali (Maay and Maxaa-tiri), and Arabic is the second language.}}*{{cite web|title=The Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic|page=5|url=http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/72421/90484/F1341539793/SOM72421.pdf|publisher=Government of Somalia|accessdate=23 November 2017|quote=ARTICLE 7 LANGUAGES. 1. The official languages of the Somali Republic shall be Somali (Maay and Maxaatiri) and Arabic.}}*{{cite web|title=Somalia - Languages|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2098.html#so|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|accessdate=23 November 2017|quote=Somali (official, according to the 2012 Transitional Federal Charter), Arabic (official, according to the 2012 Transitional Federal Charter), Italian, English}} 8. ^1 *{{cite web|title=Journal Officiel de la République de Djibouti - Loi n°96/AN/00/4èmeL portant Orientation du Système Educatif Djiboutien|url=https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/66970/63444/F2041984911/DJI-66970.pdf|publisher=Government of Djibouti|accessdate=22 November 2017|quote=Article 5 : L’Education et la Formation sont dispensées dans les langues officielles et dans les langues nationales. Un Décret pris en Conseil des Ministres fixe les modalités de l’enseignement en français, en arabe, en Afar et en Somali.}}*{{cite web|title=Djibouti in Brief|url=http://www.ccd.dj/w2017/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/DJIBOUTI-IN-BRIEF-2016.pdf|publisher=Chamber of Commerce of Djibouti|accessdate=23 November 2017|quote=Languages: Arab, French (official) Afar, Somali (national)}} 9. ^{{cite journal|authors=Graziano Savà, Mauro Tosco|title="Ex Uno Plura": the uneasy road of Ethiopian languages toward standardization|journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|date=January 2008|volume=2008|issue=191|page=117|url=http://docdro.id/Nr4Q9ir|accessdate=23 November 2017|quote=the following other languages have been introduced in the elementary school curriculum[...] ‘Afar, Beja, Bilin, and Saho (languages of the Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic)|doi=10.1515/ijsl.2008.026}} 10. ^{{cite web|title=The Constitution of Eritrea|url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Eritrea1997English.pdf|page=524|publisher=Government of Eritrea|accessdate=22 November 2017|quote=The equality of all Eritrean languages is guaranteed}} 11. ^{{cite book|last1=Lipiński|first1=Edward|title=Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar Volume 80 of Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta|date=2001|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=9042908157 |page=21 |url=http://www.google.com/books?id=IiXVqyEkPKcC&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=21 November 2016}} 12. ^{{cite book|first1=Marianne |last1=Bechaus-Gerst|first2=Roger |last2=Blench |editor= Kevin MacDonald |title=The Origins and Development of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Ethnography - "Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of livestock in Sudan" (2000)|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1135434166|page=453 |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=-t5QAwAAQBAJ|accessdate=15 September 2014}} 13. ^1 {{cite book|last1=Behrens |first1=Peter |title=Libya Antiqua: Report and Papers of the Symposium Organized by Unesco in Paris, 16 to 18 January 1984 - "Language and migrations of the early Saharan cattle herders: the formation of the Berber branch"|date=1986|publisher=Unesco|isbn=9231023764 |page=30 |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=p_hwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=14 September 2014}} 14. ^{{cite book|last1=Appleyard|first1=David|editor1-last=Edzard|editor1-first=Lutz|title=Semitic and Afroasiatic: Challenges and Opportunities|date=2012|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|location=Wiesbaden|isbn=9783447066952|page=200|chapter=Cushitic}} 15. ^{{cite book|last1=Greenberg|first1=Joseph|title=The Languages of Africa|date=1963|publisher=Indiana University|location=Bloomington|pages=48–49}} 16. ^{{cite journal|last1=Hetzron|first1=Robert|title=The limits of Cushitic|journal=Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika|date=1980|volume=2|page=7–126}} 17. ^{{cite journal|last1=Tosco|first1=Mauro|title=Cushitic Overview|journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies|date=November 2000|volume=33|issue=2|page=108|jstor=41966109}} 18. ^{{cite book|last1=Ehret|first1=Christopher|title=History and the Testimony of Language|date=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520262041|pages=138, 147}} 19. ^1 {{cite book|last1=Zaborski|first1=Andrzej|title=Fucus - "Remarks on the Verb in Beja"|date=1988|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=902723552X|page=491|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=F5G74rBLJE4C&pg=PA491|accessdate=30 September 2017}} 20. ^{{cite book|last1=Frawley (ed.)|first1=William|title=International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: AAVE-Esperanto. Vol. 1|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0195139771|page=405|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=sl_dDVctycgC&pg=PA405|accessdate=30 September 2017}} 21. ^{{cite book|authors=Allan R. Bomhard, John C. Kerns|title=The Nostratic Macrofamily: A Study in Distant Linguistic Relationship|date=1994|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=3110139006|page=24|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=_r40wG-RUO0C&pg=PA24#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=26 September 2017}} 22. ^1 2 {{cite web|last1=Vanhove|first1=Martine|title=North-Cushitic|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01485896/document|publisher=LLACAN, CNRS-INALCO, Université Sorbonne Paris-Cité|accessdate=12 November 2017}} 23. ^{{cite journal|last1=Hetzron |first1=Robert| date=1980 |title=The limits of Cushitic |journal=Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika |volume=2 |pages=7–126 }} 24. ^{{cite book|last1=Ekkehard Wolff, Hilke Meyer-Bahlburg|title=Studies in Chadic and Afroasiatic linguistics: papers from the International Colloquium on the Chadic Language Family and the Symposium on Chadic within Afroasiatic, at the University of Hamburg, September 14-18, 1981|date=1983|publisher=H. Buske|isbn=3871186074|page=23|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=qpdkAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=10 November 2017}} 25. ^{{cite conference |title=Remarks on the Genetic Classification and Relative Chronology of the Cushitic Languages |conference=Third International Hamito-Semitic Congress |book-title=Current Progress in Afro-Asiatic Linguistics |last=Zaborski |first=Andrzej |year=1984 |editor=James Bynon |pages=127–135}} 26. ^{{cite book |last=Morin |first=Didier |editor-last=Zaborski |editor-first=Andrzej |title=New Data and New Methods in Afroasiatic Linguistics. Robert Hetzron in memoriam |publisher=Otto Harassowitz |date=2001 |pages=117–124 |chapter=Bridging the gap between Northern and Eastern Cushitic}} 27. ^1 Richard Hayward, "Afroasiatic", in Heine & Nurse, 2000, African Languages 28. ^Harrassowitz Verlag – The Harrassowitz Publishing House{{dead link|date=December 2016|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} 29. ^{{cite book|last1=Savà|first1=Graziano|last2=Tosco|first2=Mauro|title=Selected comparative-historical Afrasian linguistic studies|year=2003|publisher=LINCOM Europa|editor-last=Bender|editor-first=M. Lionel|chapter=The classification of Ongota |display-editors=etal}} 30. ^{{cite journal|last=Sands|first=Bonny|year=2009 |title=Africa’s Linguistic Diversity|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=3|issue=2|pages=559–580|doi=10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00124.x}} 31. ^Robert Hetzron, "The Limits of Cushitic", Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 2. 1980, 7–126. 32. ^1 {{cite book|first1=Marianne |last1=Bechaus-Gerst |first2=Roger |last2=Blench |editor=Kevin MacDonald |title=The Origins and Development of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Ethnography – "Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of livestock in Sudan" (2000)|date=2014|publisher=Routledge |isbn=1135434166|pages=453–457|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=-t5QAwAAQBAJ|accessdate=16 April 2015}} 33. ^{{cite book|last1=Ambrose|first1=Stanley H.|title=From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa – "The Introduction of Pastoral Adaptations to the Highlands of East Africa"|date=1984|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520045742|pages=234 & 223|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=dftPHu1o2s8C |accessdate=17 April 2015}} 34. ^{{cite web|last1=Roland Kießling, Maarten Mous & Derek Nurse|title=The Tanzanian Rift Valley area|url=https://www.academia.edu/825370/The_Tanzanian_Rift_Valley_area|publisher=Maarten Mous|accessdate=17 April 2015}} 35. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Skoglund|first=Pontus|last2=Thompson|first2=Jessica C.|last3=Prendergast|first3=Mary E.|last4=Mittnik|first4=Alissa|last5=Sirak|first5=Kendra|last6=Hajdinjak|first6=Mateja|last7=Salie|first7=Tasneem|last8=Rohland|first8=Nadin|last9=Mallick|first9=Swapan|date=2017-09-21|title=Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure|url=http://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(17)31008-5|journal=Cell|language=English|volume=171|issue=1|pages=59–71.e21|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049|issn=0092-8674|pmid=28938123|pmc=5679310}} 36. ^Ehret, Christopher. 1987. Proto-Cushitic reconstruction. In Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 8: 7-180. University of Cologne. References
External links
2 : Afroasiatic languages|Cushitic languages |
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