“DDT”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

By October 1945, DDT was available for public sale in the United States. Although it was promoted by government and industry for use as an agricultural and household pesticide, there were also concerns about its use from the beginning.^[6] Opposition to DDT was focused by the 1962 publication of Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring. It cataloged environmental impacts that coincided with widespread use of DDT in agriculture in the United States, and it questioned the logic of broadcasting potentially dangerous chemicals into the environment with little prior investigation of their environmental and health effects. The book claimed that DDT and other pesticides had been shown to cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds. Its publication was a seminal event for the environmental movement and resulted in a large public outcry that eventually led, in 1972, to a ban on DDT's agricultural use in the United States.^[4] A worldwide ban on agricultural use was formalized under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, but its limited and still-controversial use in disease vector control continues,^[5]^[6] because of its effectiveness in reducing malarial infections, balanced by environmental and other health concerns.

Along with the passage of the Endangered Species Act, the United States ban on DDT is a major factor in the comeback of the bald eagle (the national bird of the United States) and the peregrine falcon from near-extinction in the contiguous United States.^[7]^[8]

Properties and chemistry

DDT is similar in structure to the insecticide methoxychlor and the acaricide dicofol. It is highly hydrophobic and nearly insoluble in water but has good solubility in most organic solvents, fats and oils. DDT does not occur naturally and is synthesised by a Friedel–Crafts hydroxyalkylation reaction between chloral ({{chem|CCl|3|CHO}}) and chlorobenzene ({{chem|C|6|H|5|Cl}}), in the presence of an acidic catalyst. DDT has been marketed under trade names including Anofex, Cezarex, Chlorophenothane, Dicophane, Dinocide, Gesarol, Guesapon, Guesarol, Gyron, Ixodex, Neocid, Neocidol and Zerdane; INN is clofenotane.^[12]

Isomers and related compounds

Commercial DDT is a mixture of several closely–related compounds. The major component (77%) is the p,p' isomer (pictured above). The o,p' isomer (pictured to the right) is also present in significant amounts (15%). Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) make up the balance. DDE and DDD are the major metabolites and environmental breakdown products.^[12] DDT, DDE and DDD are sometimes referred to collectively as DDX.^[9]

Production and use

DDT has been formulated in multiple forms, including solutions in xylene or petroleum distillates, emulsifiable concentrates, water-wettable powders, granules, aerosols, smoke candles and charges for vaporizers and lotions.^[10]

From 1950 to 1980, DDT was extensively used in agriculture – more than 40,000 tonnes each year worldwide^[11] – and it has been estimated that a total of 1.8 million tonnes have been produced globally since the 1940s.^[12] In the United States, it was manufactured by some 15 companies, including Monsanto, Ciba,^[13] Montrose Chemical Company, Pennwalt,^[14] and Velsicol Chemical Corporation.^[15] Production peaked in 1963 at 82,000 tonnes per year.^[12] More than 600,000 tonnes (1.35 billion pounds) were applied in the US before the 1972 ban. Usage peaked in 1959 at about 36,000 tonnes.^[16]

In 2009, 3,314 tonnes were produced for malaria control and visceral leishmaniasis. India is the only country still manufacturing DDT, and is the largest consumer.^[17] China ceased production in 2007.^[18]

Mechanism of insecticide action

In insects, DDT opens sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire spontaneously, which leads to spasms and eventual death.^[19] Insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT and similar insecticides. DDT resistance is also conferred by up-regulation of genes expressing cytochrome P450 in some insect species,^[20] as greater quantities of some enzymes of this group accelerate the toxin's metabolism into inactive metabolites. (The same enzyme family is up-regulated in mammals too, e.g., in response to ethanol consumption.) Genomic studies in the model genetic organism Drosophila melanogaster revealed that high level DDT resistance is polygenic, involving multiple resistance mechanisms.^[21]

History

DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler under the supervision of Adolf von Baeyer.^[22]^[23] It was further described in 1929 in a dissertation by W. Bausch and in two subsequent publications in 1930.^[24]^[25] The insecticide properties of "multiple chlorinated aliphatic or fat-aromatic alcohols with at least one trichloromethane group" were described in a patent in 1934 by Wolfgang von Leuthold.^[26] DDT's insecticidal properties were not, however, discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts.^[3]

Use in the 1940s and 1950s

DDT is the best-known of several chlorine-containing pesticides used in the 1940s and 1950s. With pyrethrum in short supply, DDT was used extensively during World War II by the Allies to control the insect vectors of typhus – nearly eliminating the disease in many parts of Europe. In the South Pacific, it was sprayed aerially for malaria and dengue fever control with spectacular effects. While DDT's chemical and insecticidal properties were important factors in these victories, advances in application equipment coupled with competent organization and sufficient manpower were also crucial to the success of these programs.^[27]

In 1945, DDT was made available to farmers as an agricultural insecticide^[12] and played a role in the final (for a time) elimination of malaria in Europe and North America.^[5]^[28]^[29]

In 1955, the World Health Organization commenced a program to eradicate malaria in countries with low to moderate transmission rates worldwide, relying largely on DDT for mosquito control and rapid diagnosis and treatment to reduce transmission.^[30] The program eliminated the disease in "North America, Europe, the former Soviet Union",^[40] and in "Taiwan, much of the Caribbean, the Balkans, parts of northern Africa, the northern region of Australia, and a large swath of the South Pacific"^[31] and dramatically reduced mortality in Sri Lanka and India.^[42]

However, failure to sustain the program, increasing mosquito tolerance to DDT, and increasing parasite tolerance led to a resurgence. In many areas early successes partially or completely reversed, and in some cases rates of transmission increased.^[32] The program succeeded in eliminating malaria only in areas with "high socio-economic status, well-organized healthcare systems, and relatively less intensive or seasonal malaria transmission".^[33]

DDT was less effective in tropical regions due to the continuous life cycle of mosquitoes and poor infrastructure. It was not applied at all in sub-Saharan Africa due to these perceived difficulties. Mortality rates in that area never declined to the same dramatic extent, and now constitute the bulk of malarial deaths worldwide, especially following the disease's resurgence as a result of resistance to drug treatments and the spread of the deadly malarial variant caused by Plasmodium falciparum. Eradication was abandoned in 1969 and attention instead focused on controlling and treating the disease. Spraying programs (especially using DDT) were curtailed due to concerns over safety and environmental effects, as well as problems in administrative, managerial and financial implementation.^[32] Efforts shifted from spraying to the use of bednets impregnated with insecticides and other interventions.^[33]^[34]

United States ban

By October 1945, DDT was available for public sale in the United States, used both as an agricultural pesticide and as a household insecticide.^[6] Although its use was promoted by government and the agricultural industry, US scientists such as FDA pharmacologist Herbert O. Calvery expressed concern over possible hazards associated with DDT as early as 1944.^[35]^[16]^[6] In 1947, Dr. Bradbury Robinson, a physician and nutritionist practicing in St. Louis, Michigan, warned of the dangers of using the pesticide DDT in agriculture. DDT had been researched and manufactured in St. Louis by the Michigan Chemical Corporation, later purchased by Velsicol Chemical Corporation,^[36] and had become an important part of the local economy.^[37] Citing research performed by Michigan State University^[38] in 1946, Robinson, a past president of the local Conservation Club,^[39] opined that:

As its production and use increased, public response was mixed. At the same time that DDT was hailed as part of the "world of tomorrow," concerns were expressed about its potential to kill harmless and beneficial insects (particularly pollinators), birds, fish, and eventually humans. The issue of toxicity was complicated, partly because DDT's effects varied from species to species, and partly because consecutive exposures could accumulate, causing damage comparable to large doses. A number of states attempted to regulate DDT.^[41]^[42] In the 1950s the federal government began tightening regulations governing its use.^[16] These events received little attention. Women like Dorothy Colson and Mamie Ella Plyler of Claxton, Georgia gathered evidence about DDT's effects and wrote to the Georgia Department of Public Health, the National Health Council in New York City, and other organizations.^[43]

In 1957 The New York Times reported an unsuccessful struggle to restrict DDT use in Nassau County, New York, and the issue came to the attention of the popular naturalist-author Rachel Carson. William Shawn, editor of The New Yorker, urged her to write a piece on the subject, which developed into her 1962 book Silent Spring. The book argued that pesticides, including DDT, were poisoning both wildlife and the environment and were endangering human health.^[4] Silent Spring was a best seller, and public reaction to it launched the modern environmental movement in the United States. The year after it appeared, President John F. Kennedy ordered his Science Advisory Committee to investigate Carson's claims. The committee's report "add[ed] up to a fairly thorough-going vindication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring thesis," in the words of the journal Science,^[44] and recommended a phaseout of "persistent toxic pesticides".^[45]

DDT became a prime target of the growing anti-chemical and anti-pesticide movements, and in 1967 a group of scientists and lawyers founded the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) with the specific goal of enacting a ban on DDT. Victor Yannacone, Charles Wurster, Art Cooley and others in the group had all witnessed bird kills or declines in bird populations and suspected that DDT was the cause. In their campaign against the chemical, EDF petitioned the government for a ban and filed lawsuits.^[46] Around this time, toxicologist David Peakall was measuring DDE levels in the eggs of peregrine falcons and California condors and finding that increased levels corresponded with thinner shells.^[47]

In response to an EDF suit, the U.S. District Court of Appeals in 1971 ordered the EPA to begin the de-registration procedure for DDT. After an initial six-month review process, William Ruckelshaus, the Agency's first Administrator rejected an immediate suspension of DDT's registration, citing studies from the EPA's internal staff stating that DDT was not an imminent danger.^[16] However, these findings were criticized, as they were performed mostly by economic entomologists inherited from the United States Department of Agriculture, who many environmentalists felt were biased towards agribusiness and understated concerns about human health and wildlife. The decision thus created controversy.^[27]

The EPA held seven months of hearings in 1971–1972, with scientists giving evidence for and against DDT. In the summer of 1972, Ruckelshaus announced the cancellation of most uses of DDT – exempting public health uses under some conditions.^[16] Again, this caused controversy. Immediately after the announcement, both EDF and the DDT manufacturers filed suit against EPA. Many in the agricultural community were concerned that food production would be severely impacted, while proponents of pesticides warned of increased breakouts of insect-borne diseases and questioned the accuracy of giving animals high amounts of pesticides for cancer potential.^[48] Industry sought to overturn the ban, while EDF wanted a comprehensive ban. The cases were consolidated, and in 1973 the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that the EPA had acted properly in banning DDT.^[16] During the late 1970s, the EPA also began banning organochlorines, pesticides that were chemically similar to DDT. These included aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, heptachlor, texaphene, and mirex.^[48]

Some uses of DDT continued under the public health exemption. For example, in June 1979, the California Department of Health Services was permitted to use DDT to suppress flea vectors of bubonic plague.^[49] DDT continued to be produced in the United States for foreign markets until 1985, when over 300 tons were exported.^[12]

International usage restrictions

In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries, beginning with Hungary in 1968^[50] followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984. By 1991 total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985 and the Republic of Korea in 1986.^[51]

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control. The Convention was ratified by more than 170 countries. Recognizing that total elimination in many malaria-prone countries is currently unfeasible absent affordable/effective alternatives, the convention exempts public health use within World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines from the ban.^[52] Resolution 60.18 of the World Health Assembly commits WHO to the Stockholm Convention's aim of reducing and ultimately eliminating DDT.^[53] Malaria Foundation International states, "The outcome of the treaty is arguably better than the status quo going into the negotiations. For the first time, there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only, meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before."^[54]

Despite the worldwide ban, agricultural use continued in India,^[55] North Korea, and possibly elsewhere.^[56] As of 2013 an estimated 3,000 to 4,000 tons of DDT were produced for disease vector control, including 2786 tons in India.^[57] DDT is applied to the inside walls of homes to kill or repel mosquitoes. This intervention, called indoor residual spraying (IRS), greatly reduces environmental damage. It also reduces the incidence of DDT resistance.^[58] For comparison, treating {{convert|40|ha|acre}} of cotton during a typical U.S. growing season requires the same amount of chemical as roughly 1,700 homes.^[59]

Environmental impact

DDT is a persistent organic pollutant that is readily adsorbed to soils and sediments, which can act both as sinks and as long-term sources of exposure affecting organisms.^[10] Depending on conditions, its soil half-life can range from 22 days to 30 years. Routes of loss and degradation include runoff, volatilization, photolysis and aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation. Due to hydrophobic properties, in aquatic ecosystems DDT and its metabolites are absorbed by aquatic organisms and adsorbed on suspended particles, leaving little DDT dissolved in the water (however, its half-life in aquatic environments is listed by the National Pesticide Information Center as 150 years^[60]). Its breakdown products and metabolites, DDE and DDD, are also persistent and have similar chemical and physical properties.^[12] DDT and its breakdown products are transported from warmer areas to the Arctic by the phenomenon of global distillation, where they then accumulate in the region's food web.^[61]

Medical researchers in 1974 found a measurable and significant difference in the presence of DDT in human milk between mothers who lived in New Brunswick and mothers who lived in Nova Scotia, "possibly because of the wider use of insecticide sprays in the past".^[62]

Because of its lipophilic properties, DDT can bioaccumulate, especially in predatory birds.^[63] DDT is toxic to a wide range of living organisms, including marine animals such as crayfish, daphnids, sea shrimp and many species of fish. DDT, DDE and DDD magnify through the food chain, with apex predators such as raptor birds concentrating more chemicals than other animals in the same environment. They are stored mainly in body fat. DDT and DDE are resistant to metabolism; in humans, their half-lives are 6 and up to 10 years, respectively. In the United States, these chemicals were detected in almost all human blood samples tested by the Centers for Disease Control in 2005, though their levels have sharply declined since most uses were banned.^[64] Estimated dietary intake has declined,^[64] although FDA food tests commonly detect it.^[65]

Despite being banned for many years, in 2018 research showed that DDT residues are still present in European soils and Spanish rivers.^[66]^[67]

Eggshell thinning{{anchor|Effects_on_wildlife_and_eggshell_thinning}}

The chemical and its breakdown products DDE and DDD caused eggshell thinning and population declines in multiple North American and European bird of prey species.^[12]^[68]^[7]^[98]^[69]^[70] DDE-related eggshell thinning is considered a major reason for the decline of the bald eagle,^[7] brown pelican,^[71] peregrine falcon and osprey.^[12] However, birds vary in their sensitivity to these chemicals, with birds of prey, waterfowl and song birds being more susceptible than chickens and related species.^[12]^[10] Even in 2010, California condors that feed on sea lions at Big Sur that in turn feed in the Palos Verdes Shelf area of the Montrose Chemical Superfund site exhibited continued thin-shell problems,^[72]^[73] though DDT's role in the decline of the California condor is disputed.^[70]^[69]

The biological thinning mechanism is not entirely understood, but DDE appears to be more potent than DDT,^[12] and strong evidence indicates that p,p'-DDE inhibits calcium ATPase in the membrane of the shell gland and reduces the transport of calcium carbonate from blood into the eggshell gland. This results in a dose-dependent thickness reduction.^[12]^[74]^[75]^[76] Other evidence indicates that o,p'-DDT disrupts female reproductive tract development, later impairing eggshell quality.^[77] Multiple mechanisms may be at work, or different mechanisms may operate in different species.^[12]

Human health

DDT is an endocrine disruptor.^[78]^[79] It is considered likely to be a human carcinogen although the majority of studies suggest it is not directly genotoxic.^[80]^[81]^[82] DDE acts as a weak androgen receptor antagonist, but not as an estrogen.^[83] p,p'-DDT, DDT's main component, has little or no androgenic or estrogenic activity.^[84] The minor component o,p'-DDT has weak estrogenic activity.

Acute toxicity

DDT is classified as "moderately toxic" by the US National Toxicology Program (NTP) and "moderately hazardous" by WHO, based on the rat oral {{LD50}} of 113 mg/kg.^[85] Indirect exposure is considered relatively non-toxic for humans.^[86]

The US Department of Transportation and Transport Canada in the Emergency Response Guidebook says DDT is "highly toxic, may be fatal if inhaled, swallowed or absorbed through skin. Avoid any skin contact. Effects of contact or inhalation may be delayed."^[87]

Chronic toxicity

Primarily through the tendency for DDT to buildup in areas of the body with high lipid content, chronic exposure can affect reproductive capabilities and the embryo or fetus.^[86]

Carcinogenicity

In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classifies DDT as Group 2A "probably carcinogenic to humans".^[93] Previous assessments by the U.S. National Toxicology Program classified it as "reasonably anticipated to be a carcinogen" and by the EPA classified DDT, DDE and DDD as class B2 "probable" carcinogens; these evaluations were based mainly on animal studies.^[12]^[34]

A 2005 Lancet review stated that occupational DDT exposure was associated with increased pancreatic cancer risk in 2 case control studies, but another study showed no DDE dose-effect association. Results regarding a possible association with liver cancer and biliary tract cancer are conflicting: workers who did not have direct occupational DDT contact showed increased risk. White men had an increased risk, but not white women or black men. Results about an association with multiple myeloma, prostate and testicular cancer, endometrial cancer and colorectal cancer have been inconclusive or generally do not support an association.^[34] A 2017 review of liver cancer studies concluded that "organochlorine pesticides, including DDT, may increase hepatocellular carcinoma risk".^[94]

A 2009 review, whose co-authors included persons engaged in DDT-related litigation, reached broadly similar conclusions, with an equivocal association with testicular cancer. Case–control studies did not support an association with leukemia or lymphoma.^[64]

Breast cancer

The question of whether DDT or DDE are risk factors in breast cancer has not been conclusively answered. Several meta analyses of observational studies have concluded that there is no overall relationship between DDT exposure and breast cancer risk.^[95]^[96] The United States Institute of Medicine reviewed data on the association of breast cancer with DDT exposure in 2012 and concluded that a causative relationship could neither be proven nor disproven.^[97]

A 2007 case–control study^[84] using archived blood samples found that breast cancer risk was increased 5-fold among women who were born prior to 1931 and who had high serum DDT levels in 1963. Reasoning that DDT use became widespread in 1945 and peaked around 1950, they concluded that the ages of 14–20 were a critical period in which DDT exposure leads to increased risk. This study, which suggests a connection between DDT exposure and breast cancer that would not be picked up by most studies, has received variable commentary in third party reviews. One review suggested that "previous studies that measured exposure in older women may have missed the critical period".^[64]^[98] The National Toxicology Program notes that while the majority of studies have not found a relationship between DDT exposure and breast cancer that positive associations have been seen in a "few studies among women with higher levels of exposure and among certain subgroups of women".^[81]

A 2015 case control study identified a link (odds ratio 3.4) between in-utero exposure (as estimated from archived maternal blood samples) and breast cancer diagnosis in daughters. The findings "support classification of DDT as an endocrine disruptor, a predictor of breast cancer, and a marker of high risk".^[99]

Malaria control{{anchor|Use_against_malaria}}

Before DDT, eliminating mosquito breeding grounds by drainage or poisoning with Paris green or pyrethrum was sometimes successful. In parts of the world with rising living standards, the elimination of malaria was often a collateral benefit of the introduction of window screens and improved sanitation.^[31] A variety of usually simultaneous interventions represents best practice. These include antimalarial drugs to prevent or treat infection; improvements in public health infrastructure to diagnose, sequester and treat infected individuals; bednets and other methods intended to keep mosquitoes from biting humans; and vector control strategies^[103] such as larvaciding with insecticides, ecological controls such as draining mosquito breeding grounds or introducing fish to eat larvae and indoor residual spraying (IRS) with insecticides, possibly including DDT. IRS involves the treatment of interior walls and ceilings with insecticides. It is particularly effective against mosquitoes, since many species rest on an indoor wall before or after feeding. DDT is one of 12 WHO–approved IRS insecticides.^[33]

The WHO's anti-malaria campaign of the 1950s and 1960s relied heavily on DDT and the results were promising, though temporary in developing countries. Experts tie malarial resurgence to multiple factors, including poor leadership, management and funding of malaria control programs; poverty; civil unrest; and increased irrigation. The evolution of resistance to first-generation drugs (e.g. chloroquine) and to insecticides exacerbated the situation.^[17]^[104] Resistance was largely fueled by unrestricted agricultural use. Resistance and the harm both to humans and the environment led many governments to curtail DDT use in vector control and agriculture.^[32] In 2006 WHO reversed a longstanding policy against DDT by recommending that it be used as an indoor pesticide in regions where malaria is a major problem.^[105]

Once the mainstay of anti-malaria campaigns, as of 2008 only 12 countries used DDT, including India and some southern African states,^[103] though the number was expected to rise.^[17]

Initial effectiveness

When it was introduced in World War II, DDT was effective in reducing malaria morbidity and mortality.^[27] WHO's anti-malaria campaign, which consisted mostly of spraying DDT and rapid treatment and diagnosis to break the transmission cycle, was initially successful as well. For example, in Sri Lanka, the program reduced cases from about one million per year before spraying to just 18 in 1963^[106]^[107] and 29 in 1964. Thereafter the program was halted to save money and malaria rebounded to 600,000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969. The country resumed DDT vector control but the mosquitoes had evolved resistance in the interim, presumably because of continued agricultural use. The program switched to malathion, but despite initial successes, malaria continued its resurgence into the 1980s.^[108]^[109]

DDT remains on WHO's list of insecticides recommended for IRS. After the appointment of Arata Kochi as head of its anti-malaria division, WHO's policy shifted from recommending IRS only in areas of seasonal or episodic transmission of malaria, to advocating it in areas of continuous, intense transmission.^[110] WHO reaffirmed its commitment to phasing out DDT, aiming "to achieve a 30% cut in the application of DDT world-wide by 2014 and its total phase-out by the early 2020s if not sooner" while simultaneously combating malaria. WHO plans to implement alternatives to DDT to achieve this goal.^[111]

South Africa continues to use DDT under WHO guidelines. In 1996, the country switched to alternative insecticides and malaria incidence increased dramatically. Returning to DDT and introducing new drugs brought malaria back under control.^[112] Malaria cases increased in South America after countries in that continent stopped using DDT. Research data showed a strong negative relationship between DDT residual house sprayings and malaria. In a research from 1993 to 1995, Ecuador increased its use of DDT and achieved a 61% reduction in malaria rates, while each of the other countries that gradually decreased its DDT use had large increases.^[59]^[113]^[114]

Mosquito resistance

In some areas resistance reduced DDT's effectiveness. WHO guidelines require that absence of resistance must be confirmed before using the chemical.^[115] Resistance is largely due to agricultural use, in much greater quantities than required for disease prevention.

Resistance was noted early in spray campaigns. Paul Russell, former head of the Allied Anti-Malaria campaign, observed in 1956 that "resistance has appeared after six or seven years".^[31] Resistance has been detected in Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Turkey and Central America and it has largely been replaced by organophosphate or carbamate insecticides, e.g. malathion or bendiocarb.^[116]

In many parts of India, DDT is ineffective.^[117] Agricultural uses were banned in 1989 and its anti-malarial use has been declining. Urban use ended.^[118] One study concluded that "DDT is still a viable insecticide in indoor residual spraying owing to its effectivity in well supervised spray operation and high excito-repellency factor."^[119]

Studies of malaria-vector mosquitoes in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa found susceptibility to 4% DDT (WHO's susceptibility standard), in 63% of the samples, compared to the average of 87% in the same species caught in the open. The authors concluded that "Finding DDT resistance in the vector An. arabiensis, close to the area where we previously reported pyrethroid-resistance in the vector An. funestus Giles, indicates an urgent need to develop a strategy of insecticide resistance management for the malaria control programmes of southern Africa."^[120]

DDT can still be effective against resistant mosquitoes^[182] and the avoidance of DDT-sprayed walls by mosquitoes is an additional benefit of the chemical.^[119] For example, a 2007 study reported that resistant mosquitoes avoided treated huts. The researchers argued that DDT was the best pesticide for use in IRS (even though it did not afford the most protection from mosquitoes out of the three test chemicals) because the other pesticides worked primarily by killing or irritating mosquitoes – encouraging the development of resistance.^[121] Others argue that the avoidance behavior slows eradication.^[185] Unlike other insecticides such as pyrethroids, DDT requires long exposure to accumulate a lethal dose; however its irritant property shortens contact periods. "For these reasons, when comparisons have been made, better malaria control has generally been achieved with pyrethroids than with DDT."^[116] In India outdoor sleeping and night duties are common, implying that "the excito-repellent effect of DDT, often reported useful in other countries, actually promotes outdoor transmission".^[122]

Residents' concerns

IRS is effective if at least 80% of homes and barns in a residential area are sprayed.^[115] Lower coverage rates can jeopardize program effectiveness. Many residents resist DDT spraying, objecting to the lingering smell, stains on walls, and the potential exacerbation of problems with other insect pests.^[116]^[123]^[124] Pyrethroid insecticides (e.g. deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin) can overcome some of these issues, increasing participation.^[116]

Human exposure

A 1994 study found that South Africans living in sprayed homes have levels that are several orders of magnitude greater than others.^[64] Breast milk from South African mothers contains high levels of DDT and DDE.^[64] It is unclear to what extent these levels arise from home spraying vs food residues. Evidence indicates that these levels are associated with infant neurological abnormalities.^[116]

Most studies of DDT's human health effects have been conducted in developed countries where DDT is not used and exposure is relatively low.^[34]^[64]^[125]

Illegal diversion to agriculture is also a concern as it is difficult to prevent and its subsequent use on crops is uncontrolled. For example, DDT use is widespread in Indian agriculture,^[126] particularly mango production^[127] and is reportedly used by librarians to protect books.^[128] Other examples include Ethiopia, where DDT intended for malaria control is reportedly used in coffee production,^[129] and Ghana where it is used for fishing.^[130]^[131] The residues in crops at levels unacceptable for export have been an important factor in bans in several tropical countries.^[116] Adding to this problem is a lack of skilled personnel and management.^[123]

Criticism of restrictions on DDT use

A few people and groups have argued that limitations on DDT use for public health purposes have caused unnecessary morbidity and mortality from vector-borne diseases, with some claims of malaria deaths ranging as high as the hundreds of thousands^[132] and millions.^[133] Robert Gwadz of the US National Institutes of Health said in 2007, "The ban on DDT may have killed 20 million children."^[134] These arguments were rejected as "outrageous" by former WHO scientist Socrates Litsios.^[101] May Berenbaum, University of Illinois entomologist, says, "to blame environmentalists who oppose DDT for more deaths than Hitler is worse than irresponsible".^[101] More recently, Dr. Michael Palmer, a professor of chemistry at the University of Waterloo, has pointed out that DDT is still used to prevent malaria, that its declining use is primarily due to increases in manufacturing costs, and that in Africa, efforts to control malaria have been regional or local, not comprehensive.^[135]

Criticisms of a DDT "ban" often specifically reference the 1972 United States ban (with the erroneous implication that this constituted a worldwide ban and prohibited use of DDT in vector control). Reference is often made to Silent Spring, even though Carson never pushed for a DDT ban. John Quiggin and Tim Lambert wrote, "the most striking feature of the claim against Carson is the ease with which it can be refuted".^[137]

Investigative journalist Adam Sarvana and others characterize these notions as "myths" promoted principally by Roger Bate of the pro-DDT advocacy group Africa Fighting Malaria (AFM).^[138]^[139]

Alternatives

Insecticides

Non-chemical vector control

Before DDT, malaria was successfully eliminated or curtailed in several tropical areas by removing or poisoning mosquito breeding grounds and larva habitats, for example by eliminating standing water. These methods have seen little application in Africa for more than half a century.^[141] According to CDC, such methods are not practical in Africa because "Anopheles gambiae, one of the primary vectors of malaria in Africa, breeds in numerous small pools of water that form due to rainfall ... It is difficult, if not impossible, to predict when and where the breeding sites will form, and to find and treat them before the adults emerge."^[142]

The relative effectiveness of IRS versus other malaria control techniques (e.g. bednets or prompt access to anti-malarial drugs) varies and is dependent on local conditions.^[33]

A WHO study released in January 2008 found that mass distribution of insecticide-treated mosquito nets and artemisinin–based drugs cut malaria deaths in half in malaria-burdened Rwanda and Ethiopia. IRS with DDT did not play an important role in mortality reduction in these countries.^[143]^[144]

In Mexico, effective and affordable chemical and non-chemical strategies were so successful that the Mexican DDT manufacturing plant ceased production due to lack of demand.^[146]

A review of fourteen studies in sub-Saharan Africa, covering insecticide-treated nets, residual spraying, chemoprophylaxis for children, chemoprophylaxis or intermittent treatment for pregnant women, a hypothetical vaccine and changing front–line drug treatment, found decision making limited by the lack of information on the costs and effects of many interventions, the small number of cost-effectiveness analyses, the lack of evidence on the costs and effects of packages of measures and the problems in generalizing or comparing studies that relate to specific settings and use different methodologies and outcome measures. The two cost-effectiveness estimates of DDT residual spraying examined were not found to provide an accurate estimate of the cost-effectiveness of DDT spraying; the resulting estimates may not be good predictors of cost-effectiveness in current programs.^[147]

However, a study in Thailand found the cost per malaria case prevented of DDT spraying (US$1.87) to be 21% greater than the cost per case prevented of lambda-cyhalothrin–treated nets (US$1.54),^[148] casting some doubt on the assumption that DDT was the most cost-effective measure. The director of Mexico's malaria control program found similar results, declaring that it was 25% cheaper for Mexico to spray a house with synthetic pyrethroids than with DDT.^[146] However, another study in South Africa found generally lower costs for DDT spraying than for impregnated nets.^[149]

A more comprehensive approach to measuring cost-effectiveness or efficacy of malarial control would not only measure the cost in dollars, as well as the number of people saved, but would also consider ecological damage and negative human health impacts. One preliminary study found that it is likely that the detriment to human health approaches or exceeds the beneficial reductions in malarial cases, except perhaps in epidemics. It is similar to the earlier study regarding estimated theoretical infant mortality caused by DDT and subject to the criticism also mentioned earlier.^[150]

A study in the Solomon Islands found that "although impregnated bed nets cannot entirely replace DDT spraying without substantial increase in incidence, their use permits reduced DDT spraying".^[151]

A comparison of four successful programs against malaria in Brazil, India, Eritrea and Vietnam does not endorse any single strategy but instead states, "Common success factors included conducive country conditions, a targeted technical approach using a package of effective tools, data-driven decision-making, active leadership at all levels of government, involvement of communities, decentralized implementation and control of finances, skilled technical and managerial capacity at national and sub-national levels, hands-on technical and programmatic support from partner agencies, and sufficient and flexible financing."^[152]

DDT resistant mosquitoes may be susceptible to pyrethroids in some countries. However, pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles mosquitoes is on the rise with resistant mosquitoes found in multiple countries^[153].

See also

References

1. ^{{PGCH|0174}}
2. ^{{IDLH|50293|DDT}}
3. ^¹NobelPrize.org: The Nobel Prize in Physiology of Medicine 1948, accessed July 26, 2007.
4. ^¹{{cite book|first=Linda |last=Lear|title=Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=36euz6DjmwUC}}|date=1 April 2009|publisher=Mariner Books|isbn=978-0-547-23823-4}}
5. ^¹{{cite journal |last=Larson |first=Kim | name-list-format = vanc |date=December 1, 2007 |title=Bad Blood |journal=On Earth |issue=Winter 2008 |url=http://www.onearth.org/article/bad-blood? |accessdate=June 5, 2008}}
6. ^{{cite journal |last=Moyers |first=Bill | name-list-format = vanc |author-link=Bill Moyers |title=Rachel Carson and DDT |date=September 21, 2007 |url=https://www.pbs.org/moyers/journal/09212007/profile2.html |accessdate=March 5, 2011 }}
7. ^¹²{{cite journal | vauthors = Stokstad E | title = Species conservation. Can the bald eagle still soar after it is delisted? | journal = Science | volume = 316 | issue = 5832 | pages = 1689–90 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17588911 | doi = 10.1126/science.316.5832.1689 }}
8. ^United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Fact Sheet: Natural History, Ecology, and History of Recovery [https://www.fws.gov/midwest/Eagle/recovery/biologue.html]
9. ^{{cite journal |pmid=22020740 |journal=J. Environ. Monit. |date=December 2011 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=3358–64 |doi=10.1039/c1em10479a |title=Sources of organochlorine pesticides in air in an urban Mediterranean environment: volatilisation from soil |first1=G. |last1=Lammel |display-authors=et al }}
10. ^¹²{{EHC-ref | id = 83 | name = DDT and Its Derivatives: Environmental Aspects | isbn = 92-4-154283-7 }}
11. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Geisz HN, Dickhut RM, Cochran MA, Fraser WR, Ducklow HW | title = Melting glaciers: a probable source of DDT to the Antarctic marine ecosystem | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 42 | issue = 11 | pages = 3958–62 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18589951 | doi = 10.1021/es702919n | bibcode = 2008EnST...42.3958G }}
12. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²Toxicological Profile: for DDT, DDE, and DDE. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, September 2002.
13. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.al.com/news/mobileregister/index.ssf?/base/news/1215162908145190.xml&coll=3|title=McIntosh residents file suit against Ciba|last=David|first=DAVID|name-list-format=vanc|date=July 4, 2008|accessdate=July 7, 2008|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKxNtMeS?url=http://www.al.com/news/mobileregister/index.ssf?%2Fbase%2Fnews%2F1215162908145190.xml&coll=3|archivedate=November 18, 2010|deadurl=yes|df=mdy-all}}
14. ^Environmental Cleanup Site Information Database for Arkema (former Pennwalt) facility, Oregon DEQ, April 2009.
15. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.themorningsun.com/stories/012708/loc_tests.shtml| title=Tests shed light on how pCBSA got into St. Louis water |last=Horvath |first=Rosemary | name-list-format = vanc |date=January 27, 2008 |newspaper=Morning Sun |location=Michigan, United States |publisher=Journal Register Company |accessdate=May 16, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705170443/http://www.themorningsun.com/stories/012708/loc_tests.shtml |archivedate=July 5, 2008 }}
16. ^¹²³⁴⁵[https://archive.epa.gov/epa/aboutepa/ddt-regulatory-history-brief-survey-1975.html DDT Regulatory History: A Brief Survey (to 1975)], U.S. EPA, July 1975.
17. ^¹²{{cite web|url=http://www.pops.int/documents/ddt/Global%20status%20of%20DDT%20SSC%2020Oct08.pdf|title=Global status of DDT and its alternatives for use in vector control to prevent disease|last=van den Berg|first=Henk|name-list-format=vanc|date=October 23, 2008|publisher=Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants/United Nations Environment Programme|accessdate=November 22, 2008|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKxOub8a?url=http://www.pops.int/documents/ddt/Global%20status%20of%20DDT%20SSC%2020Oct08.pdf|archivedate=November 18, 2010|deadurl=yes|authorlink2=Stockholm Convention|df=mdy-all}}
18. ^{{cite web |url=http://chm.pops.int/Programmes/DDT/Meetings/DDTEG32010/tabid/1108/mctl/ViewDetails/EventModID/1421/EventID/116/xmid/4037/language/en-US/Default.aspx |title=Report of the Third Expert Group Meeting on DDT |publisher=UNEP/POPS/DDT-EG.3/3, Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants |date=November 12, 2010}}
19. ^{{cite web|last1=DeCarvalho Anderson|first1=Juliana|title=DDT|url=http://www.toxipedia.org/display/toxipedia/DDT|website=Toxipedia|accessdate=27 August 2016|date=3 May 2013}}
20. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Denholm I, Devine GJ, Williamson MS | title = Evolutionary genetics. Insecticide resistance on the move | journal = Science | volume = 297 | issue = 5590 | pages = 2222–23 | date = September 2002 | pmid = 12351778 | doi = 10.1126/science.1077266 }}
21. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Pedra JH, McIntyre LM, Scharf ME, Pittendrigh BR | title = Genome-wide transcription profile of field- and laboratory-selected dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)-resistant Drosophila | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 101 | issue = 18 | pages = 7034–39 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 15118106 | pmc = 406461 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0400580101 | bibcode = 2004PNAS..101.7034P }}
22. ^{{cite journal | author = Othmar Zeidler | year = 1874 | title = Verbindungen von Chloral mit Brom- und Chlorbenzol |trans-title=Compounds of chloral with bromo- and chlorobenzene | journal = Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 1180–81 | url = http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112025694776;view=1up;seq=231 | archive-url = https://archive.is/20160420035142/http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112025694776;view=1up;seq=231 | dead-url = yes | archive-date = 2016-04-20 | doi = 10.1002/cber.18740070278 }} On p. 1181, Zeidler called DDT dimonochlorphenyltrichloräthan.
23. ^{{cite book |last=Augustin |first=Frank | name-list-format = vanc | title = Zur Geschichte des Insektizids Dichlordiphenyltrichloräthan (DDT) unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Leistung des Chemikers Paul Müller (1899–1965) |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=hY5btwAACAAJ |page=1}}|year=1993 |publisher=Medizinische Fakultät der Universität Leipzig |location=Leipzig |pages=1–77}}
24. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Brand K, Bausch W | title = Über Verbindungen der Tetraaryl-butanreihe. 10. Mitteilung. Über die Reduktion organischer Halogenverbindungen und Über Verbindungen der Tetraaryl-butanreihe | journal = Journal für Praktische Chemie | volume = 127 | pages = 219–39 | year = 1930 | pmid = | pmc = | doi = 10.1002/prac.19301270114 }}
25. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Brand K, Horn O, Bausch W | title = Die elektrochemische Darstellung von 1,1,4,4-p,p′,p",p‴-Tetraphenetyl-butin-2 und von 1,1,4,4-p,p′,p",p‴-Tetra(chlorphenyl)-butin-2. 11. Mitteilung. Über die Reduktion organischer Halogenverbindungen und Verbindungen der Tetraarylbutanreihe | journal = Journal für Praktische Chemie | volume = 127 | pages = 240–47 | year = 1930 | pmid = | pmc = | doi = 10.1002/prac.19301270115 }}
26. ^Wolfgang von Leuthold, Schädlingsbekämpfung. DRP Nr 673246, April 27, 1934
27. ^¹²{{cite book|first=Thomas |last=Dunlap|title=DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=PLL_AwAAQBAJ}}|date=14 July 2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-5385-4}}
28. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = de Zulueta J | title = The end of malaria in Europe: an eradication of the disease by control measures | journal = Parassitologia | volume = 40 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 245–246 | date = June 1998 | pmid = 9653750 | doi = }}
29. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/history/elimination_us.html |title=CDC – Malaria – About Malaria – History – Elimination of Malaria in the United States (1947–1951) |website= |accessdate=|date=2019-01-28 }}
30. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Mendis K, Rietveld A, Warsame M, Bosman A, Greenwood B, Wernsdorfer WH | title = From malaria control to eradication: The WHO perspective | journal = Tropical Medicine & International Health | volume = 14 | issue = 7 | pages = 802–809 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19497083 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2009.02287.x }}
31. ^¹²{{cite news |last=Gladwell |first=Malcolm |author-link=Malcolm Gladwell | name-list-format = vanc |title=The Mosquito Killer |newspaper=The New Yorker |date=July 2, 2001 |url=http://gladwell.com/the-mosquito-killer/}}
32. ^¹²{{cite journal | vauthors = Chapin G, Wasserstrom R | title = Agricultural production and malaria resurgence in Central America and India | journal = Nature | volume = 293 | issue = 5829 | pages = 181–185 | year = 1981 | pmid = 7278974 | doi = 10.1038/293181a0 | bibcode = 1981Natur.293..181C }}
33. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{cite journal | vauthors = Sadasivaiah S, Tozan Y, Breman JG | title = Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) for indoor residual spraying in Africa: how can it be used for malaria control? | journal = The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume = 77 | issue = 6 Suppl | pages = 249–263 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18165500 | doi = 10.4269/ajtmh.2007.77.249 }}
34. ^¹²³⁴{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogan WJ, Chen A | title = Health risks and benefits of bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane (DDT) | journal = Lancet | volume = 366 | issue = 9487 | pages = 763–773 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16125595 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67182-6 }}
35. ^{{cite book|last1=Davis|first1=Frederick Rowe|title=Banned : a history of pesticides and the science of toxicology.|date=2014|publisher=Yale University Press|location=[S.l.]|isbn=978-0300205176|pages=26|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=kuIdBQAAQBAJ|page=26}}|accessdate=25 July 2017}}
36. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.velsicol.com/|title=Leading Chemical Company - Manufacture, Distribution & Sales - Velsicol Chemical, LLC|first=Super|last=User|website=Leading Chemical Company - Manufacture, Distribution & Sales - Velsicol Chemical, LLC}}
37. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.stlouismi.com/1/stlouis/history_by_decades.asp|title=History by Decades|website=www.stlouismi.com}}
38. ^American Potato Journal June 1947, Volume 24, Issue 6, pp 183-187 Results of spraying and dusting potatoes in Michigan in 1946
39. ^"Conservation Club, St. Louis, Has Program", Lansing State Journal (Lansing, Michigan), Page 14, March 2, 1931
40. ^{{cite report | title = A Nutritionist Ponders the D.D.T. Problem | first = Bradbury | last = Robinson | author-link = Bradbury Robinson | name-list-format = vanc | location = St. Louis, Michigan | work = Private Publication | date = 1947}}
41. ^¹²³{{cite journal|last1=Conis|first1=Elena |title=Beyond Silent Spring: An Alternate History of DDT |journal=Distillations |date=2017|volume=2|issue=4|pages=16–23|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/beyond-silent-spring-an-alternate-history-of-ddt|accessdate=20 March 2018}}
42. ^¹²³⁴{{EHC-ref | id = 009 | name=DDT and its derivatives | date = 1979 | isbn = 92-4-154069-9 }}
43. ^{{cite news|last1=Conis|first1=Elena | name-list-format = vanc |title=DDT Disbelievers: Health and the New Economic Poisons in Georgia after World War II|url=https://southernspaces.org/2016/ddt-disbelievers-health-and-new-economic-poisons-georgia-after-world-war-ii|accessdate=25 July 2017|work=Southern Spaces|date=October 28, 2016}}
44. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenberg DS | title = Pesticides: White House Advisory Body Issues Report Recommending Steps to Reduce Hazard to Public | journal = Science | volume = 140 | issue = 3569 | pages = 878–79 | date = May 1963 | pmid = 17810673 | doi = 10.1126/science.140.3569.878 | bibcode = 1963Sci...140..878G }}
45. ^{{cite book |last=Michaels |first=David | name-list-format = vanc | title = Doubt is Their Product: How Industry's Assault on Science Threatens Your Health|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19-530067-3|title-link=Doubt is Their Product }}
46. ^{{cite news|title=Sue the Bastards |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910111-2,00.html |work=TIME |date=October 18, 1971 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKxR0D6f?url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910111-2,00.html |archivedate=November 18, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}
47. ^{{cite journal|first1=David B.|last1=Peakall|first2=lloyd F.|last2=Kiff | name-list-format = vanc |title=Eggshell thinning and dde residue levels among peregrine falcons falco peregrinus: a global perspective|publisher=Wiley Online Library|date=April 1979|doi= 10.1111/j.1474-919X.1979.tb04962.x|volume=121|issue = 2|journal=Ibis|pages=200–204}}
48. ^¹Susan Wayland and Penelope Fenner-Crisp. “Reducing Pesticide Risks: A Half Century of Progress.” EPA Alumni Association. March 2016.
49. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.aei.org/outlook/27063 |title=AEI – Short Publications – The Rise, Fall, Rise, and Imminent Fall of DDT |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKxRwUwH?url=http://www.aei.org/outlook/27063 |archivedate=November 18, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}
50. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.fvm.hu/main.php?folderID=1564&articleID=6169&ctag=articlelist&iid=1&part=2 |title=Selected passages from the history of the Hungarian plant protection administration on the 50th anniversary of establishing the county plant protection stations |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110025539/http://www.fvm.hu/main.php?folderID=1564&articleID=6169&ctag=articlelist&iid=1&part=2 |archivedate=January 10, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}
51. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.pic.int/Portals/5/DGDs/DGD_DDT_EN.pdf |title=DDT, Decision Guidance Document, Joint FAO/UNEP Programme for the operation of Prior Informed Consent, UNEP/FAO, Rome, Italy, 1991.}}
52. ^{{cite web |url=http://chm.pops.int/Portals/0/Repository/convention_text/UNEP-POPS-COP-CONVTEXT-FULL.English.PDF |title=Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.}}
53. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/ipcs/capacity_building/ddt_statement/en/ |title=WHO. Strengthening malaria control while reducing reliance on DDT. 2011.}}
54. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.malaria.org/DDTpage.html |title=MFI second page |publisher=Malaria Foundation International |accessdate=March 15, 2006 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKxTLPxl?url=http://www.malaria.org/DDTpage.html |archivedate=November 18, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}
55. ^{{cite news |title=Concern over excessive DDT use in Jiribam fields |agency=The Imphal Free Press |date=May 5, 2008 |url=http://www.kanglaonline.com/index.php?template=headline&newsid=42015&typeid=1 |accessdate=May 5, 2008 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081206120016/http://www.kanglaonline.com/index.php?template=headline&newsid=42015&typeid=1 |archivedate=December 6, 2008}}
56. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.pops.int/documents/ddt/Global%20status%20of%20DDT%20SSC%2020Oct08.pdf|title=Global status of DDT and its alternatives for use in vector control to prevent disease|last=van den Berg|first=Henk|name-list-format=vanc|date=October 23, 2008|publisher=Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants/United Nations Environment Programme|accessdate=November 22, 2008|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKxOub8a?url=http://www.pops.int/documents/ddt/Global%20status%20of%20DDT%20SSC%2020Oct08.pdf|archivedate=November 18, 2010|deadurl=yes|authorlink2=Stockholm Convention|df=mdy-all}}
57. ^{{cite web |url=http://chm.pops.int/Implementation/DDT/DDTMeetings/DDTEG62016/tabid/5348/Default.aspx |title=Report of the Sixth Expert Group Meeting on DDT |publisher=UNEP/POPS/DDT-EG.6, Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants |date=November 8, 2016}}
58. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.malaria.org/DDTcosts.html |title=Is DDT still effective and needed in malaria control? |publisher=Malaria Foundation International |accessdate=March 15, 2006 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKxTzvxt?url=http://www.malaria.org/DDTcosts.html |archivedate=November 18, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}
59. ^¹{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts DR, Laughlin LL, Hsheih P, Legters LJ | title = DDT, global strategies, and a malaria control crisis in South America | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 295–302 | date = July–September 1997 | pmid = 9284373 | pmc = 2627649 | doi = 10.3201/eid0303.970305 }}
60. ^{{cite web|title=DDT (Technical Fact Sheet)|url=http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/archive/ddttech.pdf|access-date= 1 August 2018}}
61. ^{{cite journal|title=The Grasshopper Effect and Tracking Hazardous Air Pollutants |journal=The Science and the Environment Bulletin |publisher=Environment Canada |issue=May/June 1998 |url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/science/sandemay/PrintVersion/print2_e.html |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040928235911/http://www.ec.gc.ca/science/sandemay/printversion/print2_e.html |archivedate=September 28, 2004 }}
62. ^[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01709117 "Presence of PCB, DDE and DDT in human milk in the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Canada"], Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology September 1974, Volume 12, Issue 3, pp 258–267. By CJ Musial, O Hutzinger, V Zitko and JF Crocker
63. ^{{cite book |title=Introduction to Ecotoxicology |publisher=Blackwell Science |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-632-03852-7 |page=68 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=X-ik73-vnXAC|page=68}} | first1 = Des W. | last1 = Connell | first2 = Paul | last2 = Lam | first3 = Bruce | last3 = Richardson | first4 = Rudolf | last4 = Wu | name-list-format = vanc }}
64. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸{{cite journal | vauthors = Eskenazi B, Chevrier J, Rosas LG, Anderson HA, Bornman MS, Bouwman H, Chen A, Cohn BA, de Jager C, Henshel DS, Leipzig F, Leipzig JS, Lorenz EC, Snedeker SM, Stapleton D | title = The Pine River statement: human health consequences of DDT use | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 117 | issue = 9 | pages = 1359–1367 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19750098 | pmc = 2737010 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.11748 }}
65. ^USDA, Pesticide Data Program Annual Summary Calendar YearPesticide Data Program Annual Summary Calendar Year 2005, November 2006.
66. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Silva V, Mol HG, Zomer P, Tienstra M, Ritsema CJ, Geissen V | title = Pesticide residues in European agricultural soils - A hidden reality unfolded | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 653 | pages = 1532–1545 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30759587 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.441 | bibcode = 2019ScTEn.653.1532S }}
67. ^{{cite web |last1=Roman |first1=Dolores |last2=Lysimachou |first2=Angeliki |last3=Balaguer |first3=Rodrigo |last4=Dimastrogiovanni |first4=Giorgio |last5=García |first5=Kistiñe |last6=González |first6=Erika | name-list-format = vanc |title=Ríos hormonados: Contamination of Spanish Rivers with Pesticides |url=https://www.pan-europe.info/resources/reports/2018/02/ríos-hormonados-contamination-spanish-rivers-pesticides |website=Pesticide Action Network Europe |access-date=26 February 2019}}
68. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Vos JG, Dybing E, Greim HA, Ladefoged O, Lambré C, Tarazona JV, Brandt I, Vethaak AD | title = Health effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on wildlife, with special reference to the European situation | journal = Critical Reviews in Toxicology | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 71–133 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10680769 | doi = 10.1080/10408440091159176 }}
69. ^¹{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/23273747.2016.1173766 |title=California condors and DDT: Examining the effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals in a critically endangered species |journal=Endocrine Disruptors |volume=4 |pages=e1173766 |year=2016 |last1=Tubbs |first1=Christopher W. | name-list-format = vanc }}
70. ^¹{{cite journal |doi=10.1046/j.1474-919X.2003.00132.x |title=California Condors and DDE: A re-evaluation |journal=Ibis |volume=145 |issue=1 |pages=136–151 |year=2002 |last1=Snyder |first1=Noel F. R. |last2=Meretsky |first2=Vicky J. | name-list-format = vanc }}
71. ^"Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Petition Finding and Proposed Rule To Remove the Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) From the Federal List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife; Proposed Rule", Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, February 20, 2008. {{Federal Register|73|9407}}
72. ^{{cite news | last = Moir | first = John | name-list-format = vanc | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/16/science/16condors.html?hpw | title = New Hurdle for California Condors May Be DDT From Years Ago | work = The New York Times | date = November 15, 2010}}
73. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Kurle CM, Bakker VJ, Copeland H, Burnett J, Jones Scherbinski J, Brandt J, Finkelstein ME |title=Terrestrial Scavenging of Marine Mammals: Cross-Ecosystem Contaminant Transfer and Potential Risks to Endangered California Condors (Gymnogyps californianus) |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=50 |issue=17 |pages=9114–9123 |year=2016 |pmid=27434394 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b01990 |bibcode=2016EnST...50.9114K }}
74. ^{{cite book | vauthors = Walker CH, Sibly RM, Hopkin SP, Peakall DB | title = Principles of ecotoxicology | publisher = CRC/Taylor & Francis |location=Boca Raton, FL |isbn=978-0-8493-3635-5 |edition=3rd | url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=WxfSBQAAQBAJ|page=300}}|date=22 December 2005|pages=300 ff}}
75. ^{{cite web |last=Guillette |first=Louis J. |name-list-format=vanc |year=2006 |url=http://www.ehponline.org/members/2005/8045/8045.pdf |title=Endocrine Disrupting Contaminants |accessdate=February 2, 2007 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKxWWYm0?url=http://www.ehponline.org/members/2005/8045/8045.pdf |archivedate=November 18, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}
76. ^¹{{cite journal | vauthors = Lundholm CD | title = DDE-induced eggshell thinning in birds: effects of p,p'-DDE on the calcium and prostaglandin metabolism of the eggshell gland | journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology C | volume = 118 | issue = 2 | pages = 113–128 | date = October 1997 | pmid = 9490182 | doi = 10.1016/S0742-8413(97)00105-9 }}
77. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Holm L, Blomqvist A, Brandt I, Brunström B, Ridderstråle Y, Berg C | title = Embryonic exposure to o,p'-DDT causes eggshell thinning and altered shell gland carbonic anhydrase expression in the domestic hen | journal = Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry / SETAC | volume = 25 | issue = 10 | pages = 2787–2793 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17022422 | doi = 10.1897/05-619R.1 }}
78. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.fws.gov/contaminants/issues/endocrinedisruptors.cfm |title= Endocrine (Hormone) Disruptors |work= United States Fish and Wildlife Service |accessdate= 8 April 2015}}
79. ^{{cite journal | url = http://gewa.mpcer.nau.edu/files/endocrine-disruptors.pdf | title = Endocrine Disruptors | publisher = National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences | date = 2007 }}
80. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/scientific_output/files/main_documents/433.pdf |title=European Food Safety Administration – DDT |accessdate=2014-10-29 }}
81. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.pdf |work=National Toxicology Program |title=DDT |accessdate=2014-10-29 }}
82. ^{{cite web |url=http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol53/mono53-9.pdf |title=IARC - DDT |accessdate=2014-10-29 }}
83. ^{{cite journal|last1=Hejmej|first1=Anna|last2=Kotula-Balak|first2=Magorzata|last3=Bilinsk|first3=Barbara | name-list-format = vanc | title = Antiandrogenic and Estrogenic Compounds: Effect on Development and Function of Male Reproductive System|year=2011|doi=10.5772/28538|journal=Steroids – Clinical Aspect|isbn=978-953-307-705-5}}
84. ^¹{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohn BA, Wolff MS, Cirillo PM, Sholtz RI | title = DDT and breast cancer in young women: new data on the significance of age at exposure | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 115 | issue = 10 | pages = 1406–14 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17938728 | pmc = 2022666 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.10260 }}
85. ^World Health Organization, The WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard, 2005.
86. ^¹²{{cite journal | vauthors = Agarwal A, Aponte-Mellado A, Premkumar BJ, Shaman A, Gupta S | title = The effects of oxidative stress on female reproduction: a review | journal = Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 49 | date = June 2012 | pmid = 22748101 | pmc = 3527168 | doi = 10.1186/1477-7827-10-49 | quote = In general, incidental human exposure to DDT has been considered relatively non-toxic, but prolonged exposure has long been recognized to adversely affect reproduction. }}
87. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.tc.gc.ca/media/documents/tdg-eng/EnglishERGPDF.pdf|title=2016 EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK|publisher=US Department of Transportation and Transport Canada}}
88. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Jurewicz J, Hanke W, Radwan M, Bonde JP | title = Environmental factors and semen quality | journal = International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 305–29 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 20053623 | doi = 10.2478/v10001-009-0036-1 }}
89. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Eskenazi B, Chevrier J, Rosas LG, Anderson HA, Bornman MS, Bouwman H, Chen A, Cohn BA, de Jager C, Henshel DS, Leipzig F, Leipzig JS, Lorenz EC, Snedeker SM, Stapleton D | title = The Pine River statement: human health consequences of DDT use | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 117 | issue = 9 | pages = 1359–67 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19750098 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.11748 | quote = Overall, the few studies conducted to date suggest that DDT exposure may affect time to pregnancy, but more research is needed. | pmc=2737010}}
90. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Chevrier J, Eskenazi B, Holland N, Bradman A, Barr DB | title = Effects of exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides on thyroid function during pregnancy | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 168 | issue = 3 | pages = 298–310 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18550560 | pmc = 2727265 | doi = 10.1093/aje/kwn136}}
91. ^{{Cite journal|last=Reardon|first=Sara|date=2018-08-16|title=Autism and DDT: What one million pregnancies can — and can't — reveal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05994-1|journal=Nature|language=EN|doi=10.1038/d41586-018-05994-1|issn=0028-0836}}
92. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown AS, Cheslack-Postava K, Rantakokko P, Kiviranta H, Hinkka-Yli-Salomäki S, McKeague IW, Surcel HM, Sourander A | title = Association of Maternal Insecticide Levels With Autism in Offspring From a National Birth Cohort | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 175 | issue = 11 | pages = 1094–1101 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 30111184 | pmc = 6377859 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17101129 }}
93. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr236_E.pdf|title=IARC Monographs evaluate DDT, lindane, and 2,4-D|publisher=}}
94. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = VoPham T, Bertrand KA, Hart JE, Laden F, Brooks MM, Yuan JM, Talbott EO, Ruddell D, Chang CH, Weissfeld JL | title = Pesticide exposure and liver cancer: a review | journal = Cancer Causes & Control | volume = 28 | issue = 3 | pages = 177–190 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 28194594 | pmc = 5336347 | doi = 10.1007/s10552-017-0854-6 }}
95. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Park JH, Cha ES, Ko Y, Hwang MS, Hong JH, Lee WJ | title = Exposure to Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and the Risk of Breast Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = Osong Public Health and Research Perspectives | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 77–84 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24955316 | pmc = 4064641 | doi = 10.1016/j.phrp.2014.02.001 }}
96. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Ingber SZ, Buser MC, Pohl HR, Abadin HG, Murray HE, Scinicariello F | title = DDT/DDE and breast cancer: a meta-analysis | journal = Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 67 | issue = 3 | pages = 421–433 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24021539 | doi = 10.1016/j.yrtph.2013.08.021 }}
97. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith-Bindman R | title = Environmental causes of breast cancer and radiation from medical imaging: findings from the Institute of Medicine report | journal = Archives of Internal Medicine | volume = 172 | issue = 13 | pages = 1023–1027 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22688684 | pmc = 3936791 | doi = 10.1001/archinternmed.2012.2329 }}
98. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Clapp RW, Jacobs MM, Loechler EL | title = Environmental and occupational causes of cancer: new evidence 2005–2007 | journal = Reviews on Environmental Health | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–37 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18557596 | pmc = 2791455 | doi = 10.1515/REVEH.2008.23.1.1 }}
99. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohn BA, La Merrill M, Krigbaum NY, Yeh G, Park JS, Zimmermann L, Cirillo PM | title = DDT Exposure in Utero and Breast Cancer | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 100 | issue = 8 | pages = 2865–2872 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26079774 | pmc = 4524999 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2015-1841 }}
100. ^{{cite web|title=Malaria Fact sheet N°94|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/|publisher=WHO|accessdate=2 February 2016}}
101. ^¹²{{cite news | first = Kirsten | last = Weir | name-list-format = vanc |title=Rachel Carson's birthday bashing |url=http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2007/06/29/rachel_carson/ |publisher=Salon.com |date=June 29, 2007 |accessdate=July 1, 2007}}
102. ^{{cite journal | last = Paull | first = John | name-list-format = vanc |title=Toxic Colonialism |journal=New Scientist |issue=2628 |page=25 |date=November 3, 2007 | url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19626280.400-toxic-colonialism.html/ }}
103. ^¹{{cite web | date = 2009 | publisher = World Health Organization | url = http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563901_eng.pdf | title = World Malaria Report }}
104. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Feachem RG, Sabot OJ | title = Global malaria control in the 21st century: a historic but fleeting opportunity | journal = JAMA | volume = 297 | issue = 20 | pages = 2281–2284 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17519417 | doi = 10.1001/jama.297.20.2281 }}
105. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/15/AR2006091501012.html |title=WHO Urges Use of DDT in Africa |date=September 16, 2006 |newspaper=Washington Post}}
106. ^{{cite book |title=The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance |page=51 | last = Garrett | first = Laurie |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=v9RY2PVOtOMC|page=51}}|date=31 October 1994|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-1-4299-5327-6}}
107. ^{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/28/health/28global.html | title = Malaria: A Disease Close to Eradication Grows, Aided by Political Tumult in Sri Lanka | first = Donald G. | last = McNeil | name-list-format = vanc | work = The New York Times | date = December 27, 2010 }}
108. ^¹{{cite book | name-list-format = vanc | title = Mosquitoes, Malaria, and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880|isbn=978-0-525-16025-0|first=Gordon A. |last=Harrison|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=mfkBr2oskyEC}}|date=1 June 1978|publisher=Dutton}}
109. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Karunaweera ND, Galappaththy GN, Wirth DF | title = On the road to eliminate malaria in Sri Lanka: lessons from history, challenges, gaps in knowledge and research needs | journal = Malaria Journal | volume = 13 | issue = | page = 59 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24548783 | pmc = 3943480 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2875-13-59 }}
110. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr50/en/index.html | publisher = World Health Organization | title = Who gives indoor use of DDT a clean bill of health for controlling malaria }}
111. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2009/malaria_ddt_20090506/en/index.html | title = Countries move toward more sustainable ways to roll back malaria | publisher = World Health Organization }}
112. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Yamey G | title = Roll Back Malaria: a failing global health campaign | journal = BMJ | volume = 328 | issue = 7448 | pages = 1086–1087 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 15130956 | pmc = 406307 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.328.7448.1086 }}
113. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Griffing SM, Gamboa D, Udhayakumar V | title = The history of 20th century malaria control in Peru | journal = Malaria Journal | volume = 12 | issue = | page = 303 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24001096 | pmc = 3766208 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2875-12-303 }}
114. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Curtis CF | title = Should the use of DDT be revived for malaria vector control? | journal = Biomédica | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 455–461 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12596442 | doi = 10.7705/biomedica.v22i4.1171}}
115. ^¹"Indoor Residual Spraying: Use of Indoor Residual Spraying for Scaling Up Global Malaria Control and Elimination". World Health Organization, 2006.
116. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{cite web | vauthors = Curtis CF | url = http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/curtiscf.htm | title = Control of Malaria Vectors in Africa and Asia | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071002124232/http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/curtiscf.htm | archive-date = October 2, 2007 | dead-url = yes | date = February 1996 | publisher = University of Minnesota }}
117. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharma VP | title = Current scenario of malaria in India | journal = Parassitologia | volume = 41 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 349–353 | date = September 1999 | pmid = 10697882 }}
118. ^{{cite journal |title=No Future in DDT: A case study of India |last=Agarwal |first=Ravi | name-list-format = vanc | journal=Pesticide Safety News |date=May 2001}}
119. ^¹{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharma SN, Shukla RP, Raghavendra K, Subbarao SK | title = Impact of DDT spraying on malaria transmission in Bareilly District, Uttar Pradesh, India | journal = Journal of Vector Borne Diseases | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | pages = 54–60 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 16161701 }}
120. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Hargreaves K, Hunt RH, Brooke BD, Mthembu J, Weeto MM, Awolola TS, Coetzee M | title = Anopheles arabiensis and An. quadriannulatus resistance to DDT in South Africa | journal = Medical and Veterinary Entomology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 417–422 | date = December 2003 | pmid = 14651656 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2003.00460.x }}
121. ^¹{{cite journal | vauthors = Grieco JP, Achee NL, Chareonviriyaphap T, Suwonkerd W, Chauhan K, Sardelis MR, Roberts DR | title = A new classification system for the actions of IRS chemicals traditionally used for malaria control | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 2 | issue = 8 | page = e716 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17684562 | pmc = 1934935 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0000716 | editor1-last = Krishna | editor1-first = Sanjeev | bibcode = 2007PLoSO...2..716G }} {{open access}}
122. ^{{cite journal |title=DDT: The fallen angel |first=V. P. |last=Sharma |name-list-format=vanc |journal=Current Science |volume=85 |pages=1532–1537 |issue=11 |date=December 2003 |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/dec102003/1532.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050518063647/http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/dec102003/1532.pdf |archivedate=May 18, 2005 |df=mdy-all }}
123. ^¹²{{cite journal | vauthors = Mabaso ML, Sharp B, Lengeler C | title = Historical review of malarial control in southern African with emphasis on the use of indoor residual house-spraying | journal = Tropical Medicine & International Health | volume = 9 | issue = 8 | pages = 846–856 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15303988 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01263.x }}
124. ^"In Malaria War, South Africa Turns To Pesticide Long Banned in the West" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013113406/http://mindfully.org/Health/Malaria-New-Strain.htm |date=October 13, 2007 }}, Roger Thurow, Wall Street Journal, July 26, 2001
125. ^{{cite news | url = https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/05/090504122058.htm |title=Unprecedented Use Of DDT Concerns Experts |last=Science Daily |date=May 9, 2009 |publisher=ScienceDaily.com |accessdate=May 30, 2009}}
126. ^{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/Markets/Commodities/Pesticide-level-in-veggies-fruits-rises/articleshow/4637527.cms|title=Pesticide level in veggies, fruits rises|last=Jayashree|first=Jayashree| name-list-format = vanc | date = 10 June 2009|publisher=Economic Times|accessdate=10 June 2009}}
127. ^{{cite journal|last=Sanjana|date=June 13, 2009|title=A Whole Fruit|journal=Tehelka Magazine|volume=6|issue=23|url=http://www.tehelka.com/story_main42.asp?filename=cr130609a_whole.asp}}
128. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/State-public-libraries-gasp-for-breath/472785|title=State public libraries gasp for breath|last=Chakravartty|first=Anupam | name-list-format = vanc | date = 8 June 2009|publisher=Indian Express|accessdate=June 8, 2009}}
129. ^{{cite journal | last = Katima | first = Jamidu | name-list-format = vanc | date = June 2009 | title = African NGOs outline commitment to malaria control without DDT | url = http://www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/Issue/pn84/PN84_5.pdf | journal = Pesticides News | issue = 84 | page = 5 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160224231607/http://www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/Issue/pn84/PN84_5.pdf | archivedate = February 24, 2016 | df = mdy-all }}
130. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ghananewsagency.org/s_social/r_9596/ |title=Ministry moves to check unorthodox fishing methods |last=Ghana News Agency |date=November 17, 2009 |publisher=Ghana News Agency |accessdate=November 18, 2009 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5uKxjHSId?url=http://www.ghananewsagency.org/s_social/r_9596/ |archivedate=November 18, 2010 |deadurl=no |df=mdy }}
131. ^{{cite news|url=http://news.myjoyonline.com/news/201004/45316.asp|title=Northern fisherfolks complain of committee's harassment|last=Appiah|first=Samuel|name-list-format=vanc|date=27 April 2010|publisher=Joy Online|accessdate=April 27, 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429002159/http://news.myjoyonline.com/news/201004/45316.asp|archivedate=April 29, 2010|df=mdy-all}}
132. ^{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B01EFDA143CF931A25750C0A9639C8B63&legacy=true |work=The New York Times|date=March 12, 2005 |title=I Have a Nightmare |first=Nicholas D. |last=Kristof | name-list-format = vanc | page=A-15 |nopp=true}}
133. ^{{cite news |title=Rachel Carson Didn't Kill Millions of Africans | first = William | last = Souder | name-list-format = vanc |date=September 4, 2012 |work=Slate |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2012/09/silent_spring_turns_50_biographer_william_souder_clears_up_myths_about_rachel_carson_.html |accessdate=September 5, 2012}}
134. ^{{cite news |authorlink = Michael Finkel | last = Finkel | first = Michael | name-list-format = vanc |title=Malaria |url=http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0707/feature1/text4.html |publisher=National Geographic |date=July 2007}}
135. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~mpalmer/stuff/DDT-myth.pdf |title=The ban of DDT did not cause millions to die from malaria |first=Michael |last=Palmer |date=29 September 2016 |publisher=University of Waterloo }}
136. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Herren HR, Mbogo C | title = The role of DDT in malaria control | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 118 | issue = 7 | pages = A282–A283; author reply A283 | date = July 2010 | pmid = 20601331 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1002279 | pmc=2920925}}
137. ^{{cite news |first1=John |last1=Quiggin |first2=Tim |last2=Lambert |title=Rehabilitating Carson |newspaper=Prospect |date=May 2008 |url=http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/rehabilitatingcarson/ | name-list-format = vanc }}
138. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.nrns.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51:bate-and-switch-how-a-free-market-magician-manipulated-two-decades-of-environmental-science- |title=Bate and Switch: How a free-market magician manipulated two decades of environmental science |last=Sarvana |first=Adam |name-list-format=vanc |date=May 28, 2009 |publisher=Natural Resources New Service |accessdate=June 2, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100524144406/http://www.nrns.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51%3Abate-and-switch-how-a-free-market-magician-manipulated-two-decades-of-environmental-science- |archivedate=May 24, 2010 |df=mdy }}
139. ^{{cite book|last=Gutstein|first=Donald | name-list-format = vanc |title=Not a Conspiracy Theory: How Business Propaganda is Hijacking Democracy|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=zDRePgAACAAJ}}|year=2009|isbn=978-1-55470-191-9}}. Relevant excerpt at {{cite news |url=https://thetyee.ca/Mediacheck/2010/01/22/DDTPropaganda/ |title=Inside the DDT Propaganda Machine |last=Gutstein |first=Donald | name-list-format = vanc |date=January 22, 2010 |publisher=The Tyee |accessdate=January 22, 2010}}
140. ^{{Cite web|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/69386/WHO_HTM_MAL_2006.1112_eng.pdf?sequence=1|title=Indoor Residual Spraying|last=|first=|date=2019|website=World Health Organization|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}
141. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Killeen GF, Fillinger U, Kiche I, Gouagna LC, Knols BG | title = Eradication of Anopheles gambiae from Brazil: lessons for malaria control in Africa? | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 2 | issue = 10 | pages = 618–627 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12383612 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(02)00397-3 }}
142. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/malaria_worldwide/reduction/vector_control.html |title=CDC – Malaria – Malaria Worldwide – How Can Malaria Cases and Deaths Be Reduced? – Larval Control and Other Vector Control Interventions |website= |accessdate=}}
143. ^"Impact of long-lasting insecticidal-treated nets (LLINs) and artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) measured using surveillance data in four African countries". {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215004936/http://www.who.int/malaria/docs/ReportGFImpactMalaria.pdf |date=February 15, 2008 }} World Health Organization, January 31, 2008.
144. ^Malaria deaths halved in Rwanda and Ethiopia Better drugs, mosquito nets are the crucial tools, David Brown (Washington Post), SF Chronicle, A-12, February 1, 2008.
145. ^"World Health Organization, A story to be shared: The successful fight against malaria in Vietnam", November 6, 2000. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226224853/http://www.afronets.org/files/malaria.pdf |date=February 26, 2008 }}
146. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.ipen.org/ipenweb/documents/work%20documents/ddt_ipenreport_english.pdf |title=DDT & Malaria |accessdate=March 11, 2009 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5pt5PazSh?url=http://www.ipen.org/ipenweb/documents/work%20documents/ddt_ipenreport_english.pdf |archivedate=May 21, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}
147. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Goodman CA, Mills AJ | title = The evidence base on the cost-effectiveness of malaria control measures in Africa | journal = Health Policy and Planning | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | pages = 301–312 | date = December 1999 | pmid = 10787646 | doi = 10.1093/heapol/14.4.301 | url = http://heapol.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/14/4/301.pdf }}
148. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Kamolratanakul P, Butraporn P, Prasittisuk M, Prasittisuk C, Indaratna K | title = Cost-effectiveness and sustainability of lambdacyhalothrin-treated mosquito nets in comparison to DDT spraying for malaria control in western Thailand | journal = The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume = 65 | issue = 4 | pages = 279–284 | date = October 2001 | pmid = 11693869 | doi = 10.4269/ajtmh.2001.65.279 }}
149. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Goodman CA, Mnzava AE, Dlamini SS, Sharp BL, Mthembu DJ, Gumede JK | title = Comparison of the cost and cost-effectiveness of insecticide-treated bednets and residual house-spraying in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa | journal = Tropical Medicine & International Health | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 280–295 | date = April 2001 | pmid = 11348519 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2001.00700.x }}
150. ^{{cite journal |url=http://www.jcu.edu.au/jrtph/vol/v04corin.pdf | vauthors = Corin SE, Weaver SA |year=2005 |title=A risk analysis model with an ecological perspective on DDT and malaria control in South Africa |journal=Journal of Rural and Tropical Public Health |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=21–32 }}
151. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Over M, Bakote'e B, Velayudhan R, Wilikai P, Graves PM | title = Impregnated nets or DDT residual spraying? Field effectiveness of malaria prevention techniques in solomon islands, 1993–1999 | journal = The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume = 71 | issue = 2 Suppl | pages = 214–223 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15331840 | doi = 10.4269/ajtmh.2004.71.214 }}
152. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Barat LM | title = Four malaria success stories: how malaria burden was successfully reduced in Brazil, Eritrea, India, and Vietnam | journal = The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 12–16 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16407339 | doi = 10.4269/ajtmh.2006.74.12 }}
153. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Mint Mohamed Lemine A, Ould Lemrabott MA, Niang EH, Basco LK, Bogreau H, Faye O, Ould Mohamed Salem Boukhary A | title = Pyrethroid resistance in the major malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis in Nouakchott, Mauritania | journal = Parasites & Vectors | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 344 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29895314 | pmc = 5998517 | doi = 10.1186/s13071-018-2923-4 | url = https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-018-2923-4 }}