| 词条 | Syrian Americans |
| 释义 |
|image = |cndndbaption = |group = Syrian Americans أمريكيون سوريون |population = 187,331[1][2][3] |popplace = New Jersey,[4][5][6][7] New York, Massachusetts, Michigan, Louisiana, Ohio, Iowa, Texas |languages = American English, Arabic (variants of Syrian Arabic), Domari, Turkmen, Neo Aramaic, Kurdish, Western Armenian, Aadyghe, Afshar, Turoyo, French |religions = Majority: Christianity (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic) Minorities: Islam (Sunni), Druze, and Judaism }}Syrian Americans are Americans of Syrian descent or background. Syrian Americans may be members of a number of differing ethnicities, including Arabs, Armenians, Arameans, Assyrians, Syrian Jews, Kurds, Syrian Turkmens and Circassians. The first significant wave of Syrian immigrants to arrive in the United States began in the 1880s.[4] Many of the earliest Syrian Americans settled in New York City, Boston, and Detroit. Immigration from Syria to the United States suffered a long hiatus after the United States Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1924, which restricted immigration. More than 40 years later, the Immigration Act of 1965, abolished the quotas and immigration from Syria to the United States saw a surge. An estimated 64,600 Syrians immigrated to the United States between 1961 and 2000.[5] The overwhelming majority of Syrian immigrants to the U.S. from 1880 to 1960 were Christian, a minority were Jewish, whereas Muslim Syrians arrived in the United States chiefly after 1965.[6] According to the United States 2016 Census, there were 187,331 Americans who claimed Syrian ancestry, about 12% of the Arab population in the United States.[7][8] HistoryThe first Syrian immigrants arrived in the United States from Ottoman Syria in the period between 1889 and 1914.[9]{{rp|303}} Most of them came from Christian villages around Mount Lebanon (before the creation of Republic of Lebanon), while around 5-10% were Muslims of different sects. A small number were also Palestinians.[10][11] According to historian Philip Hitti, approximately 900,000 "Syrians" arrived in the United States between 1899 and 1919.[12] An estimated 1,000 official entries per year came from the governorates of Damascus and Aleppo, which are governorates in modern-day Syria, in the period between 1900 and 1916.[13] Early immigrants settled mainly in Eastern United States, in the cities of New York, Boston and Detroit and the Paterson, New Jersey area. Until 1899, all migrants from the Ottoman Empire registered as "Turks" when entering the US. When "Syrian" became available as a designation at the turn of the 20th century.,[9]{{rp|304}} 3,708 migrants from the region registered as Syrians, only 28 as Turks.[14] In the 1920s, the majority of immigrants from Mount Lebanon began to refer to themselves as Lebanese instead of "Syrians".[15] Syrians, like most immigrants to the United States, were motivated to pursue the American Dream of economic success.[16] Many Christian Syrians had immigrated to the United States seeking religious freedom and an escape from Ottoman hegemony,[17] and to escape the massacres and bloody conflicts that targeted Christians in particular, after the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war and the massacres of 1840 and 1845 and the Assyrian genocide. Thousands of immigrants returned to Syria after making money in the United States; these immigrants told tales which inspired further waves of immigrants. Many settlers also sent for their relatives. Although the number of Syrian immigrants was not sizable, the Ottoman government set constraints on emigration in order to maintain its populace in Greater Syria. The United States Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1924, which greatly reduced Syrian immigration to the United States.[18] However, the quotas were annulled by the Immigration Act of 1965, which opened the doors again to Syrian immigrants. 4,600 Syrians immigrated to the United States in the mid-1960s.[5] Due to the Arab-Israeli and religious conflicts in Syria during this period, many Syrians immigrated to the United States seeking a democratic haven, where they could live in freedom without political suppression.[17] An estimated 64,600 Syrians immigrated to the United States in the period between 1961 and 2000, of which ten percent have been admitted under the refugee acts.[5] According to the United States 2000 Census, there are 142,897 Americans of Syrian ancestry living in the United States.[8] New York City has the highest concentration of Syrian Americans in the United States. Other urban areas, including Paterson, New Jersey, Boston, Dearborn, New Orleans, Toledo, Cedar Rapids, and Houston have large Syrian populations.[13] Syrian Americans are also numerous in Southern California (i.e. the Los Angeles and San Diego areas) and Arizona, many are descendants of farm laborers invited with their farm skills to irrigate the deserts in the early 20th century. Nashville has the largest Kurdish population in the United States, with many of them emigrating from Syria.{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}}. Many recent Syrian immigrants are medical doctors who studied at Damascus and Aleppo Universities and pursued their residencies and fellowships in the United States.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} AssimilationPre-1965The traditional clothing of the first Syrian immigrants in the United States, along with their occupation as peddlers, led to some xenophobia.[24] Scholars such as Oswaldo Truzzi have speculated that this work ultimately helped Syrian integration into the US by accelerating cultural contact and English language skills.[25] It has been estimated that nearly 80% of first generation Syrian women worked as street merchants.[26] They and their children were often negatively stigmatized as "street Arabs" or inaccurately assumed to be unmarried mothers or prostitutes.[24] In 1907, Congressman John L. Burnett called Syrians “the most undesirable of the undesirable peoples of Asia Minor”[9]{{rp|306}} and such stigmas appear again in a 1929 survey in Boston that associated Syrians with "lying and deception."[27][9]{{rp|306}} In 1890 the writer Jacob Riis wrote How the Other Half Lives, a book focused on Syrian children, representing the children as pitiful but dangerous.[28][24] In 1899 the National Conference on Charities declared children engaged in the street market to be equivalent to begging, opening the possibility that women street merchants with children could be deported.[24] However, Syrians reacted quickly to assimilate fully into their new culture. Immigrants Anglicized their names, adopted the English language and common Christian denominations.[29] Syrians did not congregate in urban enclaves; many of the immigrants who had worked as peddlers were able to interact with Americans on a daily basis. Aside from negative stigmas, the first generation of Syrian migrants also faced romantic stereotyping for their Christian origins. The migrant and writer Mary Amyuni described being advised to describe her home as "the Holy Land" to ease her integration into the United States: "hold up the rosaries and crosses first; say they are from the Holy Land because Americans are very religious."[9]{{rp|305}} Writers such as Horatio Alger and M.A. Howe contributed to the understanding of Syrian migrants as "redeemable peasants."[9]{{rp|306}} This view pressured Syrians to reject old ways of life as "un-American" and to "accept new ideals."[30] Immigrant writers often balanced an adopted culture with a home culture, such as in Ameen Rihani's 1911 "The Book of Khalid," which revolved around an imagined Arabic text inscribed with images of skyscrapers and pyramids.[9]{{rp|307}} Others argued for the possibility of both identities in public discourse, including Syrian academic Abbas Bajjani, who wrote that "inhabiting two separate worlds—physically and socially—was not only possible but actually desirable, since it was the only hope for the salvation, edification, and modernization of “Syria.”[31][9]{{rp|307}} Additionally, military service during World War I and World War II helped accelerate assimilation. Assimilation of early Syrian immigrants was so successful that it has become difficult to recognize the ancestors of many families which have become completely Americanized.[13] Post-1965Since 1965, immigration has been mostly Muslim. Generally, they are not overly desirous of giving up their identity as Arabs, which has been attributable to the bloom in multiculturalism to respect their Islamic religious customs and traditions in the United States.[29] ReligionChristian Syrians arrived in the United States in the late 19th century. Most Christian Syrian Americans are Greek Orthodox.[32] There are also many Catholic Syrian Americans; most branches of Catholicism are of the Eastern rite, such as Maronite Catholics, Melkite Greek Catholics, Armenian Catholics, Syrian Catholics, and Assyrian Chaldean Catholics. A few Christian Syrian Americans are Protestant. There are also members of the Assyrian Church of the East and Ancient Church of the East. The first Syrian American church was founded in Brooklyn, New York in 1895 by Saint Raphael of Brooklyn.[33] There are currently hundreds of Eastern Orthodox churches and missions in the United States.[13][34] The first wave of Syrian religious communities in the United States established ninety Maronite, Melkite, and Syrian Orthodox churches across the country by 1920, many establishing firm contrasts between themselves and American Christian faiths such as the Episcopalians or Catholics.[9]{{rp|311}} Historian Naff writes that as a broad global diaspora threatened the Syrian identity, the preservation of its religious traditions became increasingly important.[35]{{rp|241–247}} Muslim Syrians arrived in the United States chiefly after 1965.[36] The largest sect in Islam is the Sunni sect, forming 74% of the Muslim Syrian population.[37] of whom 12% are ethnic Kurds and 5% Turks. The second largest sect in Islam in Syria is the Alawite sect, a religious sect that originated in Shia Islam but separated from other Shiite Islam groups in the ninth and tenth centuries.[38] Most, if not all, Alawi Syrians come from the rural areas of Latakia Governorate. Muslim Syrian Americans have often found it difficult practicing their religion in the United States; For example, some Muslims, who are required to pray five times a day as part of Muslim rite, argue that there aren't enough mosques in the United States. Druzes form the third largest sect in Syria, which is a relatively small esoteric monotheistic religious sect. Early Syrian immigrants included Druze peddlers.[13]Syrian Jews first arrived in the United States around 1908 and settled mostly in New York.[39] Initially they lived on the Lower East Side; later settlements were in Bensonhurst and Ocean Parkway in Flatbush, Brooklyn. The Syrian Jewish community estimates its population at around 50,000.[40] Jewish organizations have assisted Syrian refugees by providing various services in Northern New Jersey.[41][42]PoliticsEarly Syrian Americans were not involved politically.[17] Business owners were usually Republican, meanwhile labor workers were usually Democrats. Second generation Syrian Americans were the first to be elected for political roles. In light of the Arab–Israeli conflict, many Syrian Americans tried to affect American foreign policy by joining Arab political groups in the United States.[43] In the early 1970s, the National Association of Arab-Americans was formed to negate the stereotypes commonly associated with Arabs in American media.[43] Syrian Americans were also part of the Arab American Institute, established in 1985, which supports and promotes Arab American candidates, or candidates commiserative with Arabs and Arab Americans, for office.[17] Mitch Daniels, who served as Governor of Indiana from 2005–2013, is a descendant of Syrian immigrants with relatives in Homs.[44] EmploymentThe majority of the early Syrian immigrants arrived in the United States seeking better jobs; they usually engaged in basic commerce, especially peddling.[16] Syrian American peddlers found their jobs comfortable since peddling required little training and mediocre vocabulary. Syrian American peddlers served as the distribution medium for the products of small manufacturers. Syrian peddlers traded mostly in dry goods, primarily clothing. Networks of Syrian traders and peddlers across the United States aided the distribution of Syrian settlements; by 1902, Syrians could be found working in Seattle, Washington.[73] Most of these peddlers were successful, and, with time, and after raising enough capital, some became importers and wholesalers, recruiting newcomers and supplying them with merchandise.[73] By 1908, there were 3,000 Syrian-owned businesses in the United States.[13] By 1910, the first Syrian millionaires had emerged.[45] Syrian Americans gradually started to work in various métiers; many worked as physicians, lawyers, and engineers. Many Syrian Americans also worked in the bustling auto industry, bringing about large Syrian American gatherings in areas like Dearborn, Michigan.[46] Later Syrian emigrants served in fields like banking, medicine, and computer science. Syrian Americans have a different occupational distribution than all Americans. According to the 2000 census, 42% of the Syrian Americans worked in management and professional occupations, compared with 34% of their counterparts in the total population; additionally, more Syrian Americans worked in sales than all American workers.[78] However, Syrian Americans worked less in the other work domains like farming, transportation, construction, etc. than all American workers.[78] According to the American Medical Association (AMA) and the Syrian American Medical Society (SAMS), which represents American health care providers of Syrian descent, there are estimated 4000 Syrian physicians practicing in the United States representing 0.4% of the health workforce and 1.6% of international medical graduates.[47] However the reported number of Syrian American physicians does not include the second and third generation of Syrian descent, therefore it is estimated that 10,000 Syrian American physicians practice in the United States.{{Citation needed|date=October 2013}} The median household income for Syrian families is higher than the national earning median; employed Syrian men earned an average $46,058 per year, compared with $37,057 for all Americans and $41,687 for Arab Americans.[78] Syrian American families also had a higher median income than all families and lower poverty rates than those of the general population.[78] Culture{{Original research|section|date=May 2017}}Syrians value strong family ties. Unlike young Americans, young Syrians find leaving their family unnecessary to set up their independence because Syrian society, just like Southwest Asia, North Africa and the wider Eastern world, places great emphasis on the group rather than the individual. In the West the individual is key and the group is secondary. Respect and social status are important in Syrian societies. Men are respected for their financial success or their honesty and sincerity. Syrians are characterized by their magnanimity and graciousness, ethics which are integral to Syrian life.[48][49] However, much of the Syrian traditions have diminished with time, mainly due to the fast pace of life in America which encourages individual independence.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}Cuisine{{Original research|section|date=May 2017}}Syrians consider eating an important aspect of social life. There are many Syrian dishes which have become popular in the United States. Unlike many Western foods, Syrian foods take more time to cook, are less expensive and usually more healthy.[85] Pita bread (khubz), which is round flat bread, and hummus, a dip made of ground chickpeas, sesame tahini, lemon juice, and garlic, are two popular Syrian foods. Baba ghanoush, or eggplant spreads, is also a dish made by Syrians. Popular Syrian salads include tabbouleh and fattoush. The Syrian cuisine includes other dishes like stuffed zucchini (mahshe), dolma, kebab, kibbeh, kibbeh nayyeh, mujaddara, shawarma, and shanklish. Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as meze, before the main course. Za'atar, minced beef, and cheese manakish are popular hors d'œuvre. Syrians are also well known for their cheese. A popular Syrian drink is the arak beverage. One of the popular desserts made by Syrians is the baklava, which is made of filo pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in honey.[50]Music{{further|Arabic music|Music of Syria}}Syrian music includes several genres and styles of music ranging from Arab classical to Arabic pop music and from secular to sacred music. Syrian music is characterized by an emphasis on melody and rhythm, as opposed to harmony. There are some genres of Syrian music that are polyphonic, but typically, most Syrian and Arabic music is homophonic. Syrian music is also characterized by the predominance of vocal music. The prototypical Arabic music ensemble in Egypt and Syria is known as the takht, and relies on a number of musical instruments that represent a standardized tone system, and are played with generally standardized performance techniques, thus displaying similar details in construction and design. Such musical instruments include the oud, kanun, rabab, ney, violin, riq and tableh.[51] The Jews of Syria sang pizmonim. Modern Syrian music has incorporated instruments from the West, including the electric guitar, cello, double bass and oboe, and incorporated influences from jazz and other foreign musical styles.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} Traditional clothingTraditional dress is not very common with Syrian Americans, and even native Syrians; modern Western clothing is conventional in both Syria and the United States. Ethnic dance performers wear a shirwal, which are loose, baggy pants with an elastic waist. Some Muslim Syrian women wear a hijab, which is a headscarf worn by Muslim and orthodox Christian women to cover their hair. There are various styles of hijab. HolidaysSyrian Americans celebrate many religious holidays, with Christian Syrian Americans celebrating most of the Christian holidays that are already celebrated in the United States, but in addition to a few others or at different times. For example, They celebrate Christmas and Easter, but since most Syrians are Eastern Orthodox, they celebrate Easter on a different Sunday from most other Americans, and various Saints' days. Syrian American Jews celebrate the Jewish holidays, such as Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Sukkot, Purim, Passover and Shavuot. Few Syrians celebrate Syria's independence day, April 17. As American citizens, many Syrians celebrate American holidays like Memorial Day, Independence Day, and Thanksgiving Day.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} Muslim Syrian Americans celebrate three main Muslim holidays: Ramadan, Eid ul-Fitr (Lesser Bairam), and Eid ul-Adha (Greater Bairam). Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic year, during which Muslims fast from dawn to sunset; Muslims resort to self-discipline to cleanse themselves spiritually. After Ramadan is over, Muslims celebrate Eid ul-Fitr, when Muslims break their fasting and revel exuberantly. Muslims also celebrate Eid ul-Adha (which means The Festival of Sacrifice) 70 days after at the end of the Islamic year, a holiday which is held along with the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, Hajj.[52] Dating and marriageMany Syrian Americans prefer traditional relationships and disfavor casual dating. For example, The Muslims can only date after completing their marriage contact, known as kitabt al-kitab (Arabic: كتابة الكتاب, which means "writing the book" in English), a period that ranges from a few months to a year or more to get used to living with one another. After this time period, a wedding takes place and fulfills the marriage. Muslims tend to marry other Muslims only, but can tend to be dynamic in terms of other ethnic groups; Unable to find other suitable Muslim Syrian Americans, many Muslim Syrian American have married other Muslim Americans. However, that is subject to mother disapproval.[13] Syrian American marriages are usually very strong; this is reflected by the low divorce rates among Syrian Americans, which are below the average rates in the United States.[13] Generally, Syrian American partners tend to have more children than average American partners; Syrian American partners also tend to have children at early stages of their marriages. According to the United States 2000 Census, almost 62% of Syrian American households were married-couple households.[53] EducationSyrian Americans, including the earliest immigrants, have always placed a high premium on education. Like many other Americans, Syrian Americans view education as a necessity. Generally, Syrian and other Arab Americans are more highly educated than the average American. In the 2000 census it was reported that the proportion of Syrian Americans to achieve a bachelor's degree or higher is one and a half times that of the total American population.[53] Many Syrian Americans now work as engineers, scientists, pharmacists, and physicians.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} LanguageWhile some may speak the formal Literary Arabic, many Syrians speak Syrian Arabic, a dialect which belongs to the Levantine Arabic family of dialects. There are also sub-dialects in Syrian Arabic; for example, people from Aleppo have a distinct and distinguishable accent, one that differs considerably from that of people from Homs or Al-Hasakah. Syrians can usually comprehend and understand the dialects of most Arabs, especially those who speak any form of Levantine Arabic.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} Many old Syrian American families have lost their linguistic traditions because many parents do not teach their children Arabic. Newer immigrants, however, maintain their language traditions. The 2000 census shows that 79.9% of Syrian Americans speak English "very well".[53] Throughout the United States, there are schools which offer Arabic language classes; there are also some Eastern Orthodox churches which hold Arabic services. Aramaic dialects are spoken also, mainly by Assyrians, and Western Armenian by those of Armenian ethnicity. Kurdish is mainly spoken by Kurds. Notable people{{Americans}}Sometimes some confusion occurs between Greater Syria and the modern Syria when determining the place of origin of the earliest Syrian Americans. However, the following list comprises notable Americans who are originally people of modern Syrian heritage.
See also
Notes1. ^{{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip |title=The Syrians in America|year=2005|origyear=1924|publisher=Gorgias Press|isbn=978-1-59333-176-4}} 2. ^Syrian Americans by J. Sydney Jones 3. ^{{cite web|title=SELECTED POPULATION PROFILE IN THE UNITED STATES 2016 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_1YR_S0201&prodType=table|website=American FactFinder|publisher=U.S Census Bureau|accessdate=11 November 2017|ref=U.S Census Bureau}} 4. ^{{cite web | url =http://www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ethnic/lebanese.cfm | title =Lebanese and Syrian Americans | accessdate =2007-05-06 | publisher =Utica College}} 5. ^1 2 {{cite web|format=XLS |url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/tables/07s0008.xls |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212000033/http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/tables/07s0008.xls |dead-url=yes |archive-date=February 12, 2007 |title=Table 8. Immigrants, by Country of Birth: 1961 to 2005 |work=United States Census |date= |accessdate=April 29, 2007 |df= }} 6. ^A Community of Many Worlds: Arab Americans in New York City, Museum of the City of New York/Syracuse University Press, 2002 7. ^{{cite web|title=American FactFinder|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk|website=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=18 August 2017}} 8. ^1 {{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-23.pdf|title=The Arab Population: 2000 (Census 2000 Brief)|date=December 2003|accessdate=January 20, 2016|work=United States Census}} 9. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 {{cite journal|last1=Khater|first1=Akram Fouad |title= Becoming "Syrian" in America: A Global Geography of Ethnicity and Nation |journal= Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies |date=2005 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages= 299–331|doi=10.1353/dsp.0.0010 }} 10. ^Naff (1993), p. 3 11. ^{{cite book|author=Ernest Nasseph McCarus|title=The Development of Arab-American Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cD-eQhE1llAC&pg=PA24 |accessdate= January 21, 2016 |year=1994 |publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-10439-0|pages=24–25}} 12. ^{{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip |title=The Syrians in America|year=2005|origyear=1924|publisher=Gorgias Press|isbn=978-1-59333-176-4}} 13. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 {{cite web | url =http://www.everyculture.com/multi/Sr-Z/Syrian-Americans.html | title =Syrian Americans | accessdate =2007-05-21 | publisher =Everyculture.com}} 14. ^{{cite book |last1=Kaufmann |first1=Asher |title= Reviving Phoenicia: The Search for Identity in Lebanon. |date=2004 |publisher= I.B. Tauris |location= London |page=101 |edition= Bilingual}} 15. ^Naff (1993), p. 2 16. ^1 Samovar & Porter (1994), p. 83 17. ^1 2 3 Suleiman (1999), pp. 1-21 18. ^{{cite book |last=McCarus |first=Ernest |title=The Development of Arab-American Identity|year=1994|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-10439-0|page=26}} 19. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.northjersey.com/story/news/passaic/paterson/2017/04/23/syrian-ceremony-paterson-reflects-resistance/100814282/|title=Resistance is the message at Syrian indepencence event|author=Rodrigo Torrejon|publisher=NorthJersey.com - part of the USA TODAY network|date=April 23, 2017|accessdate=April 23, 2017}} 20. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.northjersey.com/story/news/passaic/paterson/2016/11/23/syria-paterson-thanksgiving/94294670/|title=From Syria to Paterson, a Thanksgiving food odyssey|author=Christopher Maag|publisher=NorthJersey.com - part of the USA TODAY network|date=November 23, 2016|accessdate=December 11, 2016}} 21. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.northjersey.com/news/nearly-100-gather-for-paterson-candlelight-vigil-honoring-syrian-refugees-1.1404595|title=Nearly 100 gather for Paterson candlelight vigil honoring Syrian refugees|author1=Marina Villeneuve |author2=John Seasly |author3=Hannan Adely |last-author-amp=yes |publisher=North Jersey Media Group|date=2015-09-06|accessdate=December 11, 2016}} 22. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.northjersey.com/news/paterson-embraces-syrian-refugees-as-neighbors-1.1465489|title=Paterson embraces Syrian refugees as neighbors|author=Hannan Adely|publisher=North Jersey Media Group|date=2015-12-01|accessdate=December 11, 2016}} 23. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.northjersey.com/news/after-five-years-sorrow-and-anger-all-too-familiar-for-north-jersey-syrians-1.1527802|title=After five years, sorrow and anger all too familiar for North Jersey Syrians|author=Hannan Adely|publisher=North Jersey Media Group|date=2016-03-14|accessdate=December 11, 2016}} 24. ^1 2 3 {{cite journal|last1=Karem Albrecht|first1=Charlotte|title=An Archive of Difference: Syrian Women, the Peddling Economy and US Social Welfare, 1880-1935|journal=Gender & History|date=April 2016|volume=28|issue=1|pages=127–149|doi=10.1111/1468-0424.12180}} 25. ^{{cite journal|last1=Truzzi|first1=Oswaldo M. S.|title=The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States, a Comparative Approach|journal=Journal of American Ethnic History|date=1997|volume=16|issue=2|pages=3–34|jstor=27502161}} 26. ^{{cite book|last1=Bald|first1=Vivek|title=Bengali Harlem|date=2015|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Mass|isbn=9780674503854 |page=178 }} 27. ^{{cite book|last1=Bushee|first1=Frederick A.|editor1-last=Carson Smith|editor1-first=William|title="The Invading Host." Americans in Process: A Study of Our Citizens of Oriental Ancestry |date=1937 |publisher= Edwards Bros. |location= Ann Arbor, MI |pages=43–76 }} 28. ^{{cite book |last1=Riis |first1=Jacob |title= How the Other Half Lives |date=1890|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location= New York}} 29. ^1 Samovar & Porter (1994), p. 84 30. ^{{cite journal|last1=Razovki|first1=Cecelia|title=The Eternal Masculine.|journal=Survey|date=1917|issue=37|pages=538–46}} 31. ^{{cite journal|last1=Bajjani|first1=Abbas|title=al-Munazara bayna jaridat al-muhajir wa jaridat al-munazir [Dispute between al-Muhajir and al-Munahir Newspapers].|journal=Al-Huda|date=8 January 1905}} 32. ^{{cite web | url =http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/islam/countries/bl_SyriaChristianity.htm | archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20021217033200/http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/islam/countries/bl_SyriaChristianity.htm | archivedate =2002-12-17 | title =Religion in Syria - Christianity | accessdate =2007-05-22 | publisher =About.com}} 33. ^{{cite web | url =http://www.antiochian.org/straphaelofbrooklyn | title =St. Raphael of Brooklyn | accessdate =2007-05-22 | publisher =Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America}} 34. ^{{cite web | url=http://www.antiochian.org/parishsearch?parishname=&citymetro=&zone=&diocese=&clergy=&Submit3=Find | title =Orthodox Churches (Parishes) | accessdate =2007-05-30 | publisher =The Antiochian Orthodox Church}} 35. ^{{cite book|last1=Naff|first1=Alixa|title=Becoming American : the early Arab immigrant experience|date=1993|publisher=Southern Illinois Univ. Pr.|location=Carbondale u.a.|isbn=978-0809318964|edition=paperback }} 36. ^{{cite book |last=Williams|first=Raymond|title=Christian Pluralism in the United States: The Indian Experience|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57016-9|page=11}} 37. ^{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html |title=Syria |year=2007 |work= The World Factbook}} 38. ^{{cite web |url= http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/islam/countries/bl_SyriaAlawi.htm |archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20030215175758/http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/islam/countries/bl_SyriaAlawi.htm | archivedate =2003-02-15 |title= Religion in Syria - Alawi Islam |accessdate =2007-05-22 | publisher =About.com}} 39. ^{{cite book |last=Zenner|first=Walter|title=A Global Community: The Jews from Aleppo, Syria|year=2000|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=978-0-8143-2791-3|page=127}} 40. ^{{cite news| url =http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041112/syrian.shtml| archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20080306101537/http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041112/syrian.shtml| archivedate =2008-03-06 | title =Syrian Jews mark 100 years in U.S. | accessdate =2007-05-20 |author= Kornfeld, Alana B. Elias | publisher =Jewish News of Greater Phoenix}} 41. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.northjersey.com/photo-galleries/photos-syrian-refugee-children-enjoy-n-j-summer-camp-1.1638290|title=Syrian refugee children enjoy N.J. summer camp|publisher=North Jersey Media Group|date=August 2, 2016|accessdate=August 5, 2016}} 42. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.northjersey.com/community-news/making-a-welcome-a-little-warmer-1.1630185|title=Montclair synagogue aids Syrian refugee family|author=Lisa Marie Segarra|publisher=North Jersey Media Group|date=July 18, 2016|accessdate=August 5, 2016}} 43. ^1 Samovar & Porter (1994), p. 85 44. ^{{cite book|author=Gregory Orfalea|title=The Arab Americans: A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2F8aAQAAIAAJ |accessdate=January 21, 2016|year=2006|publisher=Olive Branch Press|isbn=978-1-56656-644-5|page=224}} 45. ^{{cite book |last=Levinson|first=David|author2=Ember, Melvin |title=American Immigrant Cultures: Builders of a Nation|year=1997|publisher=Simon & Schuster Macmillan|isbn=978-0-02-897213-8|page=580}} 46. ^{{cite book |last=Giggie|first=John|author2=Winston, Diane |title=Faith in the Market: Religion and the Rise of Urban Commercial Culture|year=2002|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3099-4|page=204}} 47. ^{{cite journal|last=Arabi|first=Mohammad|author2=Sankri-Tarbichi, AbdulGhani |title=The metrics of Syrian physicians′ brain drain to the United States|journal=Avicenna Journal of Medicine|date=1 January 2012|issue=1|pages=1–2|doi=10.4103/2231-0770.94802|pmid=23210012|url=http://www.avicennajmed.com/article.asp?issn=2231-0770;year=2012;volume=2;issue=1;spage=1;epage=2;aulast=Arabi|accessdate=27 October 2012|volume=2|pmc=3507067}} 48. ^1 2 {{cite book |last=Naff |first=Alixa |title= Becoming American: The Early Arab Immigrant Experience |year=1993 |publisher=Carbondale, Southern Illinois University Press |isbn= 978-0-585-10809-4}} 49. ^{{cite book|author=Scott C. Davis|title=The Road from Damascus: A Journey Through Syria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwegT0EVJ6EC|year=2002|publisher=Cune Press|isbn=978-1-885942-84-5}} 50. ^1 {{cite book |last=Mahdi|first=Ali Akbar|title=Teen Life in the Middle East|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-31893-1|pages=189–191|url=https://books.google.com/?id=-ewAe5DwteQC&pg=PA190&dq=Syrian+cuisine}} 51. ^{{cite book |last=Toumar|first=Habib Hassan|title=The Music of the Arabs|year=2003|publisher=Amadeus|isbn=978-1-57467-081-3}} 52. ^{{cite web|url=http://damascus.usembassy.gov/holidays.html| title =Holidays | accessdate =2007-05-24 | publisher =US Embassy in Damascus}} 53. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 {{cite web|author1=Angela Brittingham|author2=G. Patricia de la Cruz|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/censr-21.pdf|title=We the People of Arab Ancestry in the United States|date=March 2005|accessdate=January 20, 2016|work=United States Census}} 54. ^{{cite news | last =Eichner| first =Itamar| title =Israeli minister, American Idol| pages =| publisher =YNetNew.com| date =2006-11-17 | url =http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3328923,00.html| accessdate =2006-05-20}} 55. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.realitytvworld.com/news/paula-abdul-dishes-on-antonella-barba-idol-and-her-media-portrayal-4850.php|title=Paula Abdul dishes on Antonella Barba, 'Idol,' and her media portrayal|publisher=RealityTVWorld.com|accessdate=2006-05-20|date=2007-03-14|author= Rocchio, Christopher}} 56. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.film.com/features/story/winning-oscar-curse-or-blessing/13303376 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081207113221/http://www.film.com/features/story/winning-oscar-curse-or-blessing/13303376 | archivedate = 2008-12-07| title =Is winning an Oscar a curse or a blessing?| accessdate =2007-05-20 | publisher =Film.com| author =Zeidler, Sue}} 57. ^{{cite news| url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1502762/Moustapha-Akkad.html| title =Moustapaha Akkad| accessdate =2007-05-20 | work =The Daily Telegraph | location=London | date=2005-11-12}} 58. ^{{cite news|title='Mod Squad' actor Tige Andrews, 86, dies|work =USA Today| date =2006-02-05 | url =https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/people/2007-02-05-tige-andrews-obit_x.htm | archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20121026042140/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/people/2007-02-05-tige-andrews-obit_x.htm | archivedate =2012-10-26| accessdate =2006-05-20}} 59. ^1 {{cite web | url = http://www.history-of-rock.com/paul_anka.htm| title =Paul Anka| accessdate =2007-05-20 | publisher =Historyofrock.com}} 60. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/paul-anka-emc/ | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20041116085854/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0000084 | archivedate = 2004-11-16| title =Anka, Paul| accessdate =2007-03-26 | work =The Canadian Encyclopedia}} 61. ^{{cite news | url = http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,897902-1,00.html| title =Paul the Comforter| accessdate =2007-03-26 | work =Time| date=1961-11-03}} 62. ^{{cite news| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A26709-2005Apr4.html| title =Paul Anka's Deutsch Treat| accessdate =2007-03-26 | author= Leiby, Richard | work =The Washington Post | date=2005-04-05}} 63. ^{{cite web | url = http://www.paulanka.com/html/about/faq.php | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070114010045/http://www.paulanka.com/html/about/faq.php | archivedate = 2007-01-14| title =FAQ| accessdate =2007-03-26 | publisher =PaulAnka.com}} 64. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.disneychannelmedianet.com/web/showpage/showpage.aspx?program_id=3158326&type=blanchard |title=ROWAN BLANCHARD "Riley Matthews" |work=Disney Channel Medianet |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6Rm0fugzY?url=http://www.disneychannelmedianet.com/web/showpage/showpage.aspx?program_id=3158326&type=blanchard |archivedate=August 12, 2014 |deadurl=yes |df= }} 65. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm3688576/bio?ref_=nm_ov_bio_sm|title=Rowan Blanchard - Biography - IMDb|publisher=IMDb|accessdate=2016-08-08}} 66. ^{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/celebratingpoc/status/736958746514083840|title=Rowan Blanchard: lebanese, morrocan, syrian and portuguese.|publisher=Twitter|date=2016-05-29|accessdate=2016-08-08}} 67. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.in.gov/gov/|title=Indiana Governor Mitch Daniels|publisher=Official Indiana state site|accessdate=2006-05-20}} 68. ^{{cite news |last=Abbas|first=Faisal|title=Q&A with CNN’s Hala Gorani|publisher =Asharq Al-Awsat| date =2006-01-17 | url =http://english.aawsat.com/2006/01/article55268173/qa-with-cnns-hala-gorani| accessdate =2006-05-20}} 69. ^Amanda Eads, "Rahme Haidar – The Performer" World Lebanese Cultural Union (March 26, 2016). 70. ^{{cite web | url = https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000445/bio| title =Dan Hedaya| accessdate =2007-05-20 | publisher =Internet Movie Database}} 71. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_06/b3970001.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203022401/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_06/b3970001.htm|archivedate=2006-02-03|title=Steve Jobs' Magic Kingdom|publisher=BusinessWeek|accessdate=2006-09-20|date=2006-01-06}} 72. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_44/b3906025_mz072.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041031014819/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_44/b3906025_mz072.htm|archivedate=2004-10-31|title=Steve Jobs: He Thinks Different|publisher=BusinessWeek|accessdate=2006-09-20| last=Burrows|first=Peter|date=2004-11-04}} 73. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.vividseats.com/comedy/jerry-seinfeld-tickets.html|title=Jerry Seinfeld|publisher=Vividseats.com|accessdate=2006-05-20}} 74. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=14075|title=Yasser Seirawan|publisher=Chessgames.com|accessdate=2006-05-20}} 75. ^{{cite web|url=http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itsv/0200/ijse/abinader.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101165019/http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itsv/0200/ijse/abinader.htm|archivedate=2008-01-01|title=Children of al-Mahjar: Arab American Literature Spans a Century|accessdate=2007-05-20|publisher=USINFO|author=Abinader, Elmaz}} 76. ^{{cite news|last=Campbell |first=Duncan |title=Steve Jobs |work=The Guardian |date=2004-06-18 |url=http://arts.guardian.co.uk/features/story/0,11710,1241745,00.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216091116/http://arts.guardian.co.uk/features/story/0%2C11710%2C1241745%2C00.html |archivedate=2007-02-16 |accessdate=2006-05-20 |location=London |deadurl=yes |df= }} 77. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.surfermag.com/features/slater-surfforpeace/#mdiFcHxxdRgiIs6X.97|title=Surf for Peace|work=Surfer Magazine|accessdate=2009-06-17}} 78. ^{{cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1189229,00.html|title=Wafa Sultan|work=Time|accessdate=2006-05-20|author=Nomani, Asra | date=2006-04-30}} 79. ^{{cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/0,28757,1975813,00.html|title=The TIME 100, 2006|work=Time|accessdate=2006-05-20}} 80. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/movies/person/69979/Vic-Tayback|title=Vic Tayback|accessdate=2007-05-20|work=The New York Times | first=Janet | last=Maslin}} References{{refbegin}}
External links
6 : American people of Arab descent|American people of Syrian descent|Syrian American|Syrian-American history|Syrian diaspora in North America|Arab American |
| 随便看 |
|
开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。