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词条 Galveston Bay
释义

  1. History

  2. Geography

     Climate 

  3. Ecosystem

     Pollution  Urban development 

  4. Economy

  5. See also

  6. Notes

  7. References

  8. External links

{{Infobox body of water
|name = Galveston Bay
|image = Galveston Bay Landsat.jpg
|caption = Satellite image of Galveston Bay. Galveston Island is at the bottom of the image, separated from Bolivar Peninsula by Bolivar Roads. A portion of Greater Houston is visible to the left.
|image_bathymetry =
|caption_bathymetry =
|location = {{flag|Texas}} Gulf Coast
|inflow = Trinity River, San Jacinto River
|length = {{convert|30|mi|km}}
|width = {{convert|17|mi|km}}
|area = {{convert|600|mi2|km2}}
|depth = {{convert|6|ft|m}}
|max-depth = {{convert|10|ft|m}}
|volume =
|shore =
|frozen =
|islands =
|cities = Texas City, Kemah, Seabrook, La Porte, Baytown, Anahuac
|reference =
|coords = {{Coord|29|34|11|N|94|56|12|W|region:US-TX_type:waterbody_scale:500000|display=inline,title}}
|oceans = Gulf of Mexico
|countries = {{flag|United States}}
}}

Galveston Bay ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|æ|l|v|ᵻ|s|t|ən}} {{respell|GAL|vis|tən}}) is the seventh largest[1] estuary in the United States, located along the upper coast of Texas. It is connected to the Gulf of Mexico and is surrounded by sub-tropic marshes and prairies on the mainland.[2] The water in the bay is a complex mixture of sea water and fresh water which supports a wide variety of marine life. At an average depth of only {{convert|6|ft|m}} it is unusually shallow for its size.

The bay has played a significant role in the history of Texas. Galveston Island is home to the city of Galveston, the earliest major settlement in southeastern Texas and the state's largest city toward the end of the 19th century.[3] While a devastating hurricane in 1900 hastened Galveston's decline, the subsequent rise of Houston as a major trade center, facilitated by the dredging of the Houston Ship Channel across the western half of the bay, ensured the bay's continued economic importance.[4]

Today, Galveston Bay is encompassed by Greater Houston. With a population of over 6.6 million, Greater Houston is the fifth largest metropolitan area in the United States.[5] The Port of Houston, which has facilities spread across the northwestern section of the bay, is the second-busiest port in the nation by overall tonnage.[6] Other major ports utilizing the bay include the Port of Texas City and the Port of Galveston. With its diverse marine life, Galveston Bay also produces more seafood than any bay in the nation except the Chesapeake.[7]

History

{{Further|History of Houston|History of Galveston|History of the Galveston Bay Area}}The Gulf Coast gained its present configuration during the most recent glacial period approximately 18 ka (thousands of years ago). Low global sea levels allowed the Texas mainland to extend significantly further south than it is presently, and the Trinity River had carved a {{Convert|170|ft|m|adj=on}} deep canyon through present-day Bolivar Roads on its way to the coast.[8] As the glacial period came to a close, rising sea levels initially filled this narrow canyon, followed by the broad lowlands of present-day Trinity Bay. Rapid sea level rise between 7.7 and 5.5 ka shifted the Gulf coastline northward to its contemporary latitude.[8] This was quickly followed by the formation of Galveston Island (5.5 ka), a barrier island, and Bolivar Peninsula (2.5 ka), which began as a spit.[8]Human settlement in what is now Texas began at least 10,000 years ago following migrations into the Americas from Asia during the last ice age.[9] The first substantial settlements in the area are believed to have been the Karankawa and Atakapan tribes, who lived throughout the Gulf coast region.[10][11]

Though several Spanish expeditions charted the Gulf Coast, it was explorer José Antonio de Evia who in 1785 gave the bay and the island the name Galvezton in honor of Spanish viceroy Bernardo de Gálvez.[12] Louis Aury established a naval base at the harbor in 1816 to support the Mexican War of Independence. His base was soon appropriated by pirate Jean Lafitte, who temporarily transformed Galveston Island and the bay into a haven for outlaws before being ousted by the United States Navy.[13]

Following its independence from Spain, the new nation of Mexico claimed Texas as part of its territory. Settlements were established around the bay, including Galveston, Anahuac, Lynchburg, and San Jacinto. Following growing unrest, Texas revolted and gained independence in 1836 at the Battle of San Jacinto, near the bay along the San Jacinto River. The new Republic of Texas grew rapidly and joined the United States in 1845.

After the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, residents of Galveston strongly supported secession and sided with the Confederacy as the Civil War broke out.[14] However, separation from the Union did not last long; the city's harbor was blockaded by the federal navy starting in July 1861, followed by a full-scale occupation after the Battle of Galveston Harbor in October 1862.[14] However, at the Battle of Galveston in January 1863, a small Confederate force managed to overwhelm the Union's naval forces in the bay and retake the island.[15] Despite this victory, the Union continued to blockade the outlets of Galveston Bay until the end of the war.[14]

Reconstruction was swift in southeast Texas. Ranching interests were major economic drivers on the mainland in the 19th century. The city of Galveston became a major U.S. commercial center for shipping cotton, leather products and cattle, and other goods produced in the growing state. Railroads were built around the shore and new communities continued to emerge.[16] Commercial fishing developed as a substantial industry, particularly oysters, finfish, and later, shrimp.

The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 devastated the city of Galveston and heavily damaged communities around the bay.[17] Growth moved inland to Houston as fear of the risks posed by establishing businesses at Galveston limited the island's ability to compete. Texas City emerged as another important port in the area. Shipping traffic through the bay expanded dramatically after the federal government completed the dredging of the Houston Ship Channel to a depth of {{Convert|25|ft|m}} in 1914.[18] By the end of the 1930s, the Port of Houston was the largest cotton port and third largest port by overall tonnage in the United States.[18]

The Texas oil boom began in 1901 and by 1915 oil production by the bay was fully underway. Oil wells and refineries quickly developed throughout the area.[19][18]

Industrialization and urbanization led to pollution of the bay. By the 1970s, the bay was described by U.S. Representative Robert C. Eckhardt as "the most polluted body of water in the U.S."[26] The ship channel and Clear Lake were rated by the Galveston Bay National Estuary Program as having even worse water quality.[20] Drilling for oil and groundwater, as well as large wakes from increasing shipping in the bay, led to land subsidence and erosion along the shoreline, especially in the Baytown–Pasadena area.[21] Over the past few decades, approximately {{convert|100|acre|km2}} of the historic San Jacinto battleground has been submerged, Sylvan Beach, a popular destination in La Porte, has been severely eroded, and the once prominent Brownwood neighborhood of Baytown has been abandoned.[22]

The establishment of NASA's Johnson Space Center near the bay in the Clear Lake Area in 1963 brought new growth. By the 1970s, Houston had become one the nation's largest cities, and its expansion connected it with the bay communities. The bay's shoreline became heavily urbanized.[23] Today, the bay is a major destination for recreational and tourist activities, including boating, ecotourism, and waterfowl hunting.[24]

Hurricane Ike, the most economically and environmentally destructive event on the bay since 1900, struck in 2008.[25] A proposal to build a flood barrier system to prevent against future storm surge, the Ike Dike, is being considered by the state government.[26]

Geography

Galveston Bay covers approximately {{convert|600|mi2|km2}}, and is {{convert|30|mi|km}} long and {{convert|17|mi|km}} wide.[34] The bay has an average depth of {{convert|6|ft|m}} and a maximum undredged depth of {{convert|10|ft|m}}.[27] The Galveston Bay system consists of four main sub-bays: Galveston Bay proper (upper and lower), Trinity Bay, East Bay, and West Bay.[28] At Galveston Pier the maximum recorded tidal range was {{convert|3|feet}}, over the course of a month (August 2017) the range was {{convert|1.9|feet}}.[29]

A majority (54%) of the bay's inflow comes from the Trinity River, which contributes {{Convert|7.5|e6acre-feet|m3}} of freshwater annually.[1][27] The San Jacinto River, accounting for 28% of inflow volume, contributes another {{Convert|500000|acre-feet|m3}}.[1][27] Local watersheds contribute the remaining 18%.[27]

Galveston Bay has three outlets to the Gulf of Mexico: Bolivar Roads (the exit of the Houston Ship Channel) between Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula, San Luis Pass at the west end of Galveston Island, and Rollover Pass across Bolivar Peninsula. Many smaller bays and lakes are connected to the main system, including Christmas Bay, Moses Lake, Dickinson Bay, Clear Lake, Ash Lake, Black Duck Bay, and San Jacinto Bay.

The Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, an inland waterway consisting of natural islands and man-made canals, runs between the bay and the Gulf.

Climate

{{Further|Climate of Houston}}

The climate around the Bay is classified as humid subtropical (Cfa in Köppen climate classification system).[30] Prevailing winds from the south and southeast bring heat from the deserts of Mexico and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico.[31]

Summer temperatures regularly exceed {{convert|90|°F|°C}} and the area's humidity drives the heat index even higher.[32] Winters in the area are temperate with typical January highs above {{convert|60|°F|°C}} and lows are near {{convert|40|°F|°C}}. Snowfall is generally rare. Annual rainfall averages well over {{convert|40|in|mm}} a year with some areas typically receiving over {{convert|50|in|mm}}.[33]

Hurricanes are an ever-present threat during the fall season. Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula are generally at the greatest risk. However, though the island and the peninsula provide some shielding,[34] the bay shoreline still faces significant danger from storm surge.[35]

Ecosystem

This unique and complex mixing of waters from different sources provides nursery and spawning grounds for many types of marine life including crabs, shrimp, oysters, and many varieties of fish thereby supporting a substantial fishing industry.[7] The deeper navigation channels of the bay provide suitable habitats for bottlenose dolphins, which feed on the abundant fish varieties.[36] Additionally, the system of bayous, rivers, and marshes that rings the bay supports its own collection of ecosystems, containing diverse wildlife and enabling freshwater farming of crawfish.[37]

The wetlands that surround the bay support a variety of fauna. Notable terrestrial species include the American alligator and the bobcat, while bird species include the yellow rail, purple gallinule, and pelican.[38]

Pollution

The Houston Area Research Council (HARC) and Galveston Bay Foundation periodically release the Galveston Bay Report Card, which grades a number of metrics indicative of the health of the bay's ecosystem and waters. The 2016 reports assigns a "C" grade for toxins in bay sediments, noting high concentrations of mercury and pyrene.[39] The presence of the San Jacinto Pits Superfund site in the Houston Ship Channel, which contains large amounts of dioxin, is considered a significant threat to the bay's health.[39]

The entire bay is covered by seafood consumption advisories set by the Texas Department of State Health Services, but the strictness of these standards varies by location. In the Ship Channel, advisories recommend against the consumption of all fish and blue crab, while in the lower bay, advisories only apply to catfish.[39]

In the early 1990s, the Houston Ship Channel had the fifth highest level of toxic chemicals in the nation due to industrial discharge, with over {{Convert|18.2|e6lb|kg}} discharged between 1990 and 1994. However, the bay has generally benefitted from improving water quality since the passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972.[39]

Excessive ozone levels can occur due to industrial activities; nearby Houston is ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States.[40] The industries located along the ship channel are a major cause of the pollution.[41]

On March 22, 2014, a barge carrying nearly {{Convert|1|e6gal|e6L}} of marine fuel oil collided with another ship in the Houston Ship Channel, causing the contents of one of the barge's {{Convert|168000|gal|L|adj=on}} tanks to leak into Galveston Bay.[42]

Urban development

{{Main| Greater Houston}}

Galveston Bay is located in Greater Houston, which is the fifth largest metropolitan area in the United States, and home to one of the nation's most significant shipping centers.[43] Houston, the nation's fourth largest city, is the economic and cultural center of the region. Other significant communities bordering the bay include Texas City, Pasadena, Baytown, Seabrook, Kemah, Clear Lake, and Anahuac. The bay is bordered by four counties: Brazoria, Chambers, Harris, and Galveston. Important ports that serve the bay include the Port of Houston, the Port of Texas City, and the Port of Galveston. The Houston Ship Channel, which connects the Port of Houston to the Gulf, passes through the bay. It is a partially man-made feature created by dredging the Buffalo Bayou, the ship channel subbays, and Galveston Bay.[44]

The area has a broad industrial base including the energy, manufacturing, aeronautics, transportation, and health care sectors. The bayside communities in particular are home to the Johnson Space Center, which houses the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base, Ellington Airport (home of the Houston Spaceport), and a high concentration of petrochemical refineries.[45]

Economy

A large commercial fishing industry has grown around Galveston Bay, with significant production of shrimp, blue crab, eastern oyster, black drum, flounder, sheepshead, and snapper.[46] In 2007, the Port of Galveston produced {{Convert|19.2|e6lb|e6kg}} of seafood with a value of $40.1 million.[47]

Galveston Bay supports a significant recreation and tourism industry, especially as a result of its proximity to major population centers. Over 40% of Greater Houston residents participate annually in hiking and swimming along the bay, while 20% go fishing and 15% go boating.[24] The five counties surrounding the bay are home to 88,000 registered pleasure crafts.[24] Fishing expenditures (such as the purchase of fishing bait or lodging) along Galveston Bay and Sabine Lake generate approximately $650 million annually.[47] The recreational fishing industry supports over 3,000 jobs in the bay area.[47]

With over 600 species of birds, Galveston Bay is a popular destination for birdwatching. This sort of ecotourism generates millions in annual revenue for Chambers County, which is home to the Anahuac National Wildlife Refuge and High Island.[24]

See also

{{Portal|Houston}}
  • Galveston Bay Area
  • Galveston Island
  • List of bays of the Houston area
  • Trinity Bay (Texas)
{{Clear}}

Notes

1. ^1 2 {{Cite web|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2006/5287/pdf/GavlestonBaySystem.pdf|title=Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Galveston Bay System|last=Pulich, Jr.|first=Warren|date=2002|website=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2017-03-29}}
2. ^Eubanks (2006), pg. 10–11
3. ^{{Cite web|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hdg01|title=Galveston, TX|last=McComb|first=David G.|date=2010-06-15|website=Texas State Historical Association|language=en|access-date=2017-03-28}}
4. ^"J.H.W. Stele to Sayers, September 11–12, 1900". Texas State Library and Archives Commission, Retrieved on August 31, 2007
5. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.houstonpublicmedia.org/articles/news/2016/03/24/142556/census-numbers-are-out-greater-houston-area-has-largest-population-gain/|title=Census Numbers Are Out: Greater Houston Area Has Largest Population Gain|last=Lawhorn|first=Valerie|date=2016-03-24|work=Houston Public Media|access-date=2017-03-28|language=en-US}}
6. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.chron.com/discoverhouston/article/Houston-has-the-busiest-seaport-in-the-US-4486844.php|title=Houston has the busiest seaport in the U.S.|last=Collier|first=Kiah|date=May 3, 2013|location=|newspaper=Houston Chronicle|accessdate=October 17, 2014}}
7. ^1 {{cite web |url=http://www.gbep.state.tx.us/news-events/socialmarketingnewsletter.asp |title=Social Marketing: A New Approach to Enhance Public Outreach and Education about Galveston Bay |date=Fall 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008200754/http://www.gbep.state.tx.us/news-events/socialmarketingnewsletter.asp |archivedate=2011-10-08 |df= }}
"Galveston Bay is the second most productive estuary in the nation, producing more seafood than any other bay—trailing only Chesapeake Bay, which is over six times Galveston Bay’s size!"
8. ^1 2 {{Cite book|title=The Formation and Future of the Upper Texas Coast|last=Anderson|first=John B.|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-1585445615|location=|pages=29, 37–46}}
9. ^{{cite book | title=Texas History | author=Wade, Mary Dodson | publisher=Coughlan Publishing | year=2008 | page=4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mxp1hJoIeqoC | isbn=0-613-19100-5}}
10. ^Newcomb (1961), p. 59–60.
11. ^{{cite web | url=http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/mitchell/ethnohistory.html | work=Texas Beyond History | title=Ethnohistory | publisher=University of Texas | accessdate=18 Dec 2009}}
12. ^{{Handbook of Texas | name=GALVESTON COUNTY | id=hcg02}}
13. ^Chang (2006), pg. 187
Kearney (2008), pg. 177
14. ^1 2 {{Cite web|url=http://nautarch.tamu.edu/PROJECTS/denbigh/galv01.htm |title=Galveston During the Civil War |last=Cotham |first=Edward T. |date=2000-07-16 |website=Institute of Nautical Archaeology, Texas A&M University |dead-url=yes |access-date=2017-03-28 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912055914/http://nautarch.tamu.edu/projects/denbigh/galv01.htm |archivedate=2009-09-12 |df= }}
15. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/houston/article/Battle-of-Galveston-saved-Texas-from-Union-4158740.php|title=Battle of Galveston saved Texas from Union invasion|last=Rice|first=Harvey|date=2012-12-31|work=Houston Chronicle|access-date=2017-03-29}}
16. ^{{Handbook of Texas | id=hfd03 | name=DICKINSON, TEXAS}}
{{Handbook of Texas | id=hel06 | name=LEAGUE CITY, TEXAS}}
17. ^{{cite web|title=Weather Events: The 1900 Galveston Hurricane|url=http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/events/1900hurr.htm|publisher=The Weather Doctor|accessdate=12 Sep 2009}}
18. ^1 2 {{Cite web|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rhh11|title=Houston Ship Channel|last=Sibley|first=Marilyn M.|date=2010-06-15|website=Texas State Historical Association|language=en|access-date=2017-03-31}}
19. ^{{Handbook of Texas | id=hdp02 | name=Pasadena, Texas}}
{{Handbook of Texas | id=hdb01 | name=Baytown, Texas}}
20. ^1 {{cite book|url=https://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/comm_exec/pubs/gbnep/gbnep-22/gbnep_22_17-34.pdf|title=Ambient Water and Sediment Quality of Galveston Bay: Present Status and Historical Trends|last=|first=|publisher=Galveston Bay National Estuary Program|year=1991|isbn=|location=Galveston|page=18|pages=|chapter=1: Introduction}}
21. ^Henson (1993), p. 51.
{{Cite journal |last=Holzer |first=T.L. |author2=Bluntzer, R.L. |title=Land subsidence near oil and gas-fields, Houston, Texas |journal=Ground Water |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=450–459 |year=1984 |url=http://info.ngwa.org/gwol/pdf/842030855.PDF |doi=10.1111/j.1745-6584.1984.tb01416.x |accessdate=25 December 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726114259/http://info.ngwa.org/gwol/pdf/842030855.PDF |archivedate=26 July 2011 |df= }}
22. ^{{cite web | url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1182/pdf/07Houston.pdf | publisher=U.S. Geological Service | page=35 | title=Houston-Galveston, Texas: Managing coastal subsidence |author1=Coplin, Laura S. |author2=Galloway, Devin | accessdate=12 Jan 2010}}
{{cite news | work=Houston Chronicle | url=http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id=2009_4738401 | title=Restoration project on Sylvan Beach has begun $3.5 million plan will create 2,000 feet of shoreline, protective barricade | author=Christian, Carol | date=14 May 2009}}
23. ^Ramos (2004), pg. 154
24. ^1 2 3 {{Cite web|url=http://galvbaydata.org/www.galvbaydata.org/Portals/2/StateOfTheBay/2011/Chapters/Chapter%204%20-%20The%20Human%20Role%20Present.pdf|title=The State of the Bay: A Characterization of the Galveston Bay Ecosystem, Third Edition|last=Lester|first=L. James|last2=Gonzalez|first2=L. A.|date=December 2011|website=|publisher=Galveston Bay Estuary Program; Texas Commission on Environmental Quality|access-date=2017-03-29}}
25. ^TRESAUGUE, MATTHEW: The state of the bay, HOUSTON CHRONICLE, 22 Aug 2009
26. ^{{cite news |last=Casselman |first=Ben |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124407051124382899 |title=Planning the 'Ike Dike' Defense |work=Wall Street Journal |date=4 June 2009 }}
{{cite news |title=Could Galveston's proposed Ike Dike work? |last=Triarsi |first=Allison |work=KHOU |date=15 Jan 2009 |url=http://www.khou.com/news/local/stories/khou090114_mp_galvestons-ike-dike.3c40711.html }}{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
{{cite web |title=The Ike Dike: The Proposal to Prevent Severe Storm Destruction on the Texas Gulf Coast |url=http://hydrology.rice.edu/sspeed/project_dike.html |publisher=Rice University: SSPEED – Severe Storm Prediction, Education, and Evacuation from Disasters |accessdate=12 Sep 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505085654/http://hydrology.rice.edu/sspeed/project_dike.html |archivedate=2010-05-05 |df= }}
{{cite news |title=Officials: Dikes, flood gates could protect area |last=Meyers |first=Rhiannon |work=Galveston County Daily News |date=14 Jan 2009 |url=http://galvestondailynews.com/story.lasso?wcd=131570 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716231530/http://galvestondailynews.com/story.lasso?wcd=131570 |archivedate=2011-07-16 |df= }}
27. ^1 2 3 4 {{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-10/documents/nccriicomplete.pdf|title=National Coastal Condition Report II|last=|first=|date=2005|website=|publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=2017-03-28}}
28. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtpwM38sPj0C|title=Energy metropolis: an environmental history of Houston and the Gulf Coast|author1=Melosi, Martin V. |author2=Pratt, Joseph A. |publisher=Univ of Pittsburgh Press|year=2007|page=12|isbn=0-8229-4335-2}}
29. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.tides4fishing.com/us/texas/galveston-pier-21#_tidal_coefficient|accessdate=August 27, 2017|title=Tides and solunar charts, Galveston Pier 21|website=tides4fishing}}
30. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.visithoustontexas.com/media/statistics/Houston_Stats_Weather |title=Weather Stats |work=Greater Houston Convention and Visitors Bureau |accessdate=2008-10-11 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081230150744/http://www.visithoustontexas.com/media/statistics/Houston_Stats_Weather |archivedate=2008-12-30 |df= }}
31. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.visithoustontexas.com/media/statistics/Houston_Stats_Weather |title=Weather Stats |work=Greater Houston Convention and Visitors Bureau |accessdate=2008-10-11 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081230150744/http://www.visithoustontexas.com/media/statistics/Houston_Stats_Weather |archivedate=2008-12-30 |df= }}
Melosi (2007), pg. 13
32. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.weather.com/outlook/recreation/golf/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/77573?from=tenDay_bottomnav_undeclared|title=Monthly Averages for League City, TX (77573)|publisher=The Weather Channel|accessdate=14 Dec 2006|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019173244/http://www.weather.com/outlook/recreation/golf/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/77573?from=tenDay_bottomnav_undeclared|archivedate=October 19, 2012}}
33. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.weather.com/weather/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/77573|title=Monthly Averages for League City, TX (77573)|publisher=The Weather Channel web site|accessdate=8 Sep 2009}}
{{cite web|url=http://www.weather.com/weather/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/77506|title=Monthly Averages for Pasadena, TX (77573)|publisher=The Weather Channel web site|accessdate=8 Sep 2009}}
34. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26676728/|title=Wide Ike and shallow coast mean strong surge|date=12 Sep 2008|publisher=MSNBC|quote=Houston is buffered by Galveston Island — which sits in the way of the surge — and the bay system}}
{{cite news|url=http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20090531/article/905311057?Title=Hurricane-forecasters-zero-in-on-threat-of-surge|title=Hurricane forecasters zero in on threat of surge|date=31 May 2009|work=Sarasota Herald Tribune|quote=Just north of Galveston Island, the Bolivar Peninsula shields Galveston Bay much like Lido Key and Longboat Key shield Sarasota Bay.|author=Spinner, Kate}}
35. ^{{cite news|url=http://blogs.chron.com/sciguy/archives/2008/09/post_39.html|title=Would a category 3 hurricane surge flood your home?|date=9 Sep 2008|work=Houston Chronicle Blogs|author=Berger, Eric}}
36. ^{{cite web | url=http://www.gbep.state.tx.us/about-galveston-bay/mammals.asp | title=Mammals | publisher=Galveston Bay Estuary Program | accessdate=21 Jan 2010 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008200827/http://www.gbep.state.tx.us/about-galveston-bay/mammals.asp | archivedate=2011-10-08 | df= }}
37. ^{{Cite web | title = Rural areas east of Houston become crawfish havens | work = News 8 Austin | accessdate = 2009-09-05| url = http://www.news8austin.com/content/headlines/?ArID=73980&SecID=2}}
38. ^{{cite web| title=Anahuac Refuge | author=FWS | publisher=FWS.gov| date=September 2008 | accessdate=2008-09-20|url=http://www.fws.gov/southwest/refuges/texas/anahuac/index.html}}
39. ^1 2 3 {{Cite web|url=http://www.galvbaygrade.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/2016_Galveston_Bay_Full_Report_8-5-16-webSized.pdf#page=3|title=Galveston Bay Report Card 2016|last=|first=|date=2016|website=|publisher=Houston Area Research Council (HARC) and Galveston Bay Foundation|access-date=2017-03-30}}
40. ^{{cite web|url=http://lungaction.org/reports/sota05_analysis4.html|title=State of the Air 2005, National and Regional Analysis|date=2005-03-25|publisher=American Lung Association|accessdate=2006-02-17|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080519184221/http://lungaction.org/reports/sota05_analysis4.html|archivedate=2008-05-19|df=}}
41. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cleanhouston.org/air/index.htm|title=Summary of the Issues|date=2004-08-01|publisher=Citizens League for Environmental Action Now|accessdate=2006-02-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210193216/http://www.cleanhouston.org/air/index.htm|archivedate=2006-02-10|deadurl=yes|df=}}
42. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=293074177|title=Oil Spill Cleanup Impedes Major Texas Ship Channel|date=March 23, 2014|publisher=NPR|author=The Associated Press|access-date=2018-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402115650/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=293074177|archive-date=2014-04-02|dead-url=yes|df=}}
43. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l9oDMC2DLJ4C|title=The Road More Traveled: Why the Congestion Crisis Matters More Than You ...|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.|year=2008|isbn=0-7425-5112-1|pages=126–127|author1=Balaker, Ted|author2=Staley, Sam}}
{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xtT_PknIXgC|title=Next Voyage Will Be Different!|publisher=Dog Ear Publishing|year=2008|page=11|author=Henry, Thomas E|isbn=9781598586275}}
44. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.betterbay.org/html/releases/HoustonShipChannelHistory.htm |title=The Houston Ship Channel A History |publisher=The Port of Houston Authority |accessdate=9 September 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613141425/http://www.betterbay.org/html/releases/HoustonShipChannelHistory.htm |archivedate=13 June 2008 |df= }}
45. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/about/index.html |title=Johnson Space Center |date=8 Sep 2009 }}
{{cite web|url=http://gbic.tamug.edu/gbeppubs/24/gbnep_24_09-10.pdf |title=CHAPTER TWO: GALVESTON BAY |publisher=Texas A&M University-Galveston: Galveston Bay Information Center (Galveston Bay Estuary Project) |quote=... it [Galveston Bay] is at the center of the state's petrochemical industry, with 30 percent of U. S. petroleum industry and nearly 50 percent of U. S. production of ethylene and propylene {{sic|occuring}} on its shores. |accessdate=8 Sep 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720055651/http://gbic.tamug.edu/gbeppubs/24/gbnep_24_09-10.pdf |archivedate=2011-07-20 |df= }}
Weisman (2008), pg. 166,"The industrial megaplex that begins on the east side of Houston and continues uninterrupted to the Gulf of Mexico, 50 miles away, is the largest concentration of petroleum refineries, petrochemical companies, and storage structures on Earth."
46. ^{{Cite web|url=https://gom.usgs.gov/web/documents/Chapter_D_GalvestonBay.pdf|title=Galveston Bay|last=Handley|first=Larry|last2=Spear|first2=Kathryn|date=2014|website=United States Geological Survey|access-date=2017-03-29|last3=Taylor|first3=Eleonor|last4=Thatcher|first4=Cindy}}
47. ^1 2 {{Cite web|url=http://calhoun.agrilife.org/files/2011/10/Impacts_of_Hurricane_Ike-_on_the_Galveston_Bay_Fishing_Community.pdf|title=Impacts of Hurricane Ike on the Galveston Bay Fishing Community|last=Cummins|first=Rhonda|date=July 2009|website=|publisher=Texas Sea Grant Extension Program|access-date=2017-03-29}}

References

  • {{cite book | title=Galveston Bay | author=Antrobus, Sally | url=https://books.google.com/books?q=galveston+bay | publisher=Texas A&M University Press | year=2005 | isbn=1-58544-461-8}}
  • {{cite book|title=Onshore impacts of offshore oil |author1=Cairns, William J. |author2=Rogers, Patrick M. |year=1990|publisher=Taylor & Francis, Inc.|isbn=978-0-85334-974-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xkmu6ZgnVxQC}}
  • {{cite book | title= Birdlife of Houston, Galveston, and the Upper Texas Coast |author1=Eubanks, Ted |author2=Behrstock, Robert A. |author3=Weeks, Ron J. | year=2006 | publisher=Texas A&M University Press | isbn= 1-58544-510-X}} - [https://books.google.com/books?id=3HvKbY3GbqgC Read at] Google Books
  • {{cite book|title=The history of Galveston Bay resource utilization |author=Henson, Margaret Swett |publisher=Galveston Bay National Estuary Program |year=1993 |url=http://gbic.tamug.edu/gbeppubs/39/gbnep-39.html |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091215055121/http://gbic.tamug.edu/gbeppubs/39/gbnep-39.html |archivedate=2009-12-15 |df= }}
  • {{cite book | title=The Indians of Texas: From Prehistoric to Modern Times | author=Newcomb, William Wilmon | year=1961 | location=Austin, TX | isbn=0-292-78425-2 | publisher=University of Texas Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tqRduobv0U0C}}
  • {{cite book | title=Texas |author1=Ramos, Mary G. |author2=Reavis, Dick J. | year=2004 | publisher=Random House | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgCE8AHvYUQC | isbn=0-676-90502-1}}

External links

{{commons category|Galveston Bay|
Galveston Bay}}
  • {{Handbook of Texas|id=rrg01|name=Galveston Bay}}
  • [https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo32621 Ellender to Galveston Bay, Louisiana—Texas: Intercoastal Waterway Nautical Chart] National Ocean Service
  • [https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo26688 Galveston Bay to Cedar Lakes, Texas: Intercoastal Waterway Nautical Chart] National Ocean Service
  • See an 1853 map Preliminary chart of San Luis Pass, Texas / from a trigonometrical survey under the direction of A.D. Bache ; triangulation by James S. Williams ; topography by J.M. Wampler ; hydrography by the party under the command of H.S. Stellwagen ; engg. by E. Yeager & J.J. Knight ; redd. drng. by E. Freyhold., hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
  • Galveston Island State Park
  • Galveston Bay Status and Trends
{{Houston-Sugar Land-Baytown MSA}}{{Texas}}

7 : Galveston Bay Area|Bays of Texas|Estuaries of Texas|Regions of Texas|Bodies of water of Chambers County, Texas|Bodies of water of Galveston County, Texas|Bodies of water of Harris County, Texas
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