“Ancient Macedonian language”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The surviving public and private inscriptions found in Macedonia indicate that there was no other written language in ancient Macedonia but Ancient Greek,^[4]^[5] and recent epigraphic discoveries in the Greek region of Macedonia, such as the Pella curse tablet, suggest that ancient Macedonian might have been a variety of North Western Ancient Greek.^[6] Other linguistic evidence suggests that although Ancient Greek was the language of literacy, the vernacular was a separate language, although closely related.^[7]^[8]

Classification

Due to the fragmentary attestation of this language or dialect, various interpretations are possible.^[9]{{pn|date=September 2016}}

Properties

From the few idiomatic words that survive, only a little can be said about special features of the language.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} A notable sound-law is that the Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirates (/bʰ, dʰ, gʰ/) sometimes appear as voiced stops /b, d, g/, (written {{lang|grc|β, δ, γ}}), whereas they are generally unvoiced as /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/ ({{lang|grc|φ, θ, χ}}) elsewhere in Greek.^[22]

If {{lang|grc|γοτάν}} gotán ('pig') is related to *g^wou ('cattle'), this would indicate that the labiovelars were either intact, or merged with the velars, unlike the usual Greek treatment (Attic {{lang|grc|βοῦς}} boûs). Such deviations, however, are not unknown in Greek dialects; compare Laconian Doric (the dialect of Sparta) {{lang|grc|γλεπ-}} glep- for common Greek {{lang|grc|βλεπ-}} blep-, as well as Doric {{lang|grc|γλάχων}} gláchōn and Ionic {{lang|grc|γλήχων}} glēchōn for common Greek {{lang|grc|βλήχων}} blēchōn.^[25]

A number of examples suggest that voiced velar stops were devoiced, especially word-initially: {{lang|grc|κάναδοι}} kánadoi, 'jaws' (< PIE *genu-); {{lang|grc|κόμβους}} kómbous, 'molars' (< PIE *gombh-); within words: {{lang|grc|ἀρκόν}} arkón (Attic {{lang|grc|ἀργός}} argós); the Macedonian toponym Akesamenai, from the Pierian name Akesamenos (if Akesa- is cognate to Greek agassomai, agamai, "to astonish"; cf. the Thracian name Agassamenos).

In Aristophanes' The Birds, the form {{lang|grc|κεβλήπυρις}} keblēpyris ('red head', the name of a bird, perhaps the goldfinch or redpoll) is found,^[26] showing a Macedonian-style voiced stop in place of a standard Greek unvoiced aspirate: {{lang|grc|κεβ(α)λή}} keb(a)lē versus {{lang|grc|κεφαλή}} kephalē ('head').

A number of the Macedonian words, particularly in Hesychius' lexicon, are disputed (i.e., some do not consider them actual Macedonian words) and some may have been corrupted in the transmission. Thus abroutes, may be read as abrouwes ({{lang|grc|αβρουϝες}}), with tau ({{lang|grc|Τ}}) replacing a digamma.^[27] If so, this word would perhaps be encompassable within a Greek dialect; however, others (e.g. A. Meillet) see the dental as authentic and think that this specific word would perhaps belong to an Indo-European language different from Greek.

A. Panayotou summarizes some features generally identified through ancient texts and epigraphy:^[28]

Phonology

Morphology

Ancient Macedonian morphology is shared with ancient Epirus, including some of the oldest inscriptions from Dodona.^[30] The morphology of the first declension nouns with an -ας ending is also shared with Thessalian (e.g. Epitaph for Pyrrhiadas, Kierion^[31]).

Onomastics

Anthroponymy

M. Hatzopoulos summarizes the Macedonian anthroponymy (that is names borne by people from Macedonia before the expansion beyond the Axios or people undoubtedly hailing from this area after the expansion) as follows:^[32]

Common in the creation of ethnics is the use of -έστης, -εστός especially when derived from sigmatic nouns (ὄρος > Ὀρέστης but also Δῖον > Διασταί).^[28]

Toponymy

The toponyms of Macedonia proper are generally Greek, though some of them show a particular phonology and a few others are non-Greek.

Calendar

The Macedonian names of about half or more of the months of the ancient Macedonian calendar have a clear and generally accepted Greek etymology (e.g. Dios, Apellaios, Artemisios, Loos, Daisios), though some of the remaining ones have sometimes been considered to be Greek but showing a particular Macedonian phonology (e.g. Audunaios has been connected to "Haides" *A-wid and Gorpiaios/Garpiaios to "karpos" fruit).

Epigraphy

Macedonian onomastics: the earliest epigraphical documents attesting substantial numbers of Macedonian proper names are the second Athenian alliance decree with Perdiccas II (~417–413 BC), the decree of Kalindoia (~335–300 BC) and seven curse tablets of the 4th century BC bearing mostly names.^[33]^[34]

About 99% of the roughly 6,300 Macedonian-period inscriptions discovered by archaeologists were written in the Greek language, using the Greek alphabet.^[36] The Pella curse tablet, a text written in a distinct Doric Greek dialect, found in 1986 and dated to between mid to early 4th century BC, has been forwarded as an argument that the ancient Macedonian language was a dialect of North-Western Greek, part of the Doric dialect group.^[37]

Hesychius Glossary

A body of idiomatic words has been assembled from ancient sources, mainly from coin inscriptions, and from the 5th century lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria, amounting to about 150 words and 200 proper names, though the number of considered words sometimes differs from scholar to scholar. The majority of these words can be confidently assigned to Greek albeit some words would appear to reflect a dialectal form of Greek. There are, however, a number of words that are not easily identifiable as Greek and reveal, for example, voiced stops where Greek shows voiceless aspirates.^[38] Specific words and consonant shifts are, however, present in most dialects of most languages.

Other sources

Proposed

Macedonian in Classical sources

Among the references that have been discussed as possibly bearing some witness to the linguistic situation in Macedonia, there is a sentence from a fragmentary dialogue, apparently between an Athenian and a Macedonian, in an extant fragment of the 5th century BC comedy 'Macedonians' by the Athenian poet Strattis (fr. 28), where a stranger is portrayed as speaking in a rural Greek dialect. His language contains expressions such as {{lang|grc|ὕμμες ὡττικοί}} for {{lang|grc|ὑμεὶς ἀττικοί}} "you Athenians", {{lang|grc|ὕμμες}} being also attested in Homer, Sappho (Lesbian) and Theocritus (Doric), while {{lang|grc|ὡττικοί}} appears only in "funny country bumpkin" contexts of Attic comedy.^[62]

Another text that has been quoted as evidence is a passage from Livy (lived 59 BC-14 AD) in his Ab urbe condita (31.29). Describing political negotiations between Macedonians and Aetolians in the late 3rd century BC, Livy has a Macedonian ambassador argue that Aetolians, Acarnanians and Macedonians were "men of the same language".^[63] This has been interpreted as referring to a shared North-West Greek speech (as opposed to Attic Koiné).^[64] In another passage, Livy states that an announcement was translated from Latin to Greek for Macedonians to understand.^[65]

Over time, "Macedonian" (μακεδονικός), when referring to language (and related expressions such as μακεδονίζειν; to speak in the Macedonian fashion) acquired the meaning of Koine Greek.^[68]

Contributions to the Koine

As a consequence of the Macedonians' role in the formation of the Koine, Macedonian contributed considerable elements, unsurprisingly including some military terminology (διμοιρίτης, ταξίαρχος, ὑπασπισταί, etc.). Among the many contributions were the general use of the first declension grammar for male and female nouns with an -as ending, attested in the genitive of Macedonian coinage from the early 4th C BC of Amyntas III (ΑΜΥΝΤΑ in the genitive; the Attic form that fell into disuse would be ΑΜΥΝΤΟΥ). There were changes in verb conjugation such as in the Imperative δέξα attested in Macedonian sling stones found in Asiatic battlefields, that became adopted in place of the Attic forms. Koine Greek established a spirantisation of beta, gamma and delta, which has been attributed to the Macedonian influence.^[69] Other adoptions from the ancient Macedonian include the simplification of the sequence /ign/ to /i:n/ (γίνομαι, Attic γίγνομαι) and the loss of aspiration of the consonant cluster /sth/ (> /st/) (γενέσται, Attic γενέσθαι), for example as in a Koine inscription from Dura-Europos from the 2nd or 3rd century AD: "τον Χριστὀν μνἠσκεστε".{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

See also

Notes

References

1. ^B. Joseph (2001): "Ancient Greek". In: J. Garry et al. (eds.) Facts about the World's Major Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages, Past and Present.
2. ^Blažek, Václav (2005). "Paleo-Balkanian Languages I: Hellenic Languages"
3. ^Eugene N. Borza (1992) [https://books.google.com/books?id=614pd07OtfQC&pg=PA94 In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon], p. 94 (citing Hammond); G. Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers (1993), ch.4.1.
4. ^{{cite book|author1=Joseph Roisman|author2=Ian Worthington|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC&pg=PA94|date=7 July 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5163-7|page=94|quote=Many surviving public and private inscriptions indicate that in the Macedonian kingdom there was no dominant written language but standard Attic and later on koine Greek.}}
5. ^{{cite book|title=The Cambridge ancient history, 3rd edition, Volume VI|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|page=730|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vx251bK988gC&pg=RA7-PA831 | first1=D. M. | last1=Lewis | first2=John | last2=Boardman | isbn=978-0-521-23348-4}}
6. ^Sarah B. Pomeroy, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Jennifer Tolbert Roberts, A Brief History of Ancient Greece: Politics, Society, and Culture, Oxford University Press, 2008, p.289
7. ^¹Vladimir Georgiev, "The Genesis of the Balkan Peoples", The Slavonic and East European Review 44:103:285-297 (July 1966)
"Ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. From the 4th century BC on began the Hellenization of ancient Macedonian."
8. ^Eric Hamp & Douglas Adams (2013) "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages", Sino-Platonic Papers, vol 239.
9. ^B. Joseph (2001): "Ancient Greek". In: J. Garry et al. (eds.) Facts about the world's major languages: an encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present. Online paper
10. ^{{cite book| last= Mallory |first= J.P.| authorlink= JP Mallory| editor =Mallory, J.P. |editor2=Adams, D.Q. | year= 1997| title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |location= Chicago-London|publisher= Fitzroy Dearborn |isbn= 1-884964-98-2|page = 361}}
11. ^¹{{cite encyclopedia | last = Masson | first = Olivier | title=[Ancient] Macedonian language|editor = Hornblower, S. |editor2=Spawforth A. | encyclopedia = The Oxford Classical Dictionary | origyear = 1996 | edition = revised 3rd | year = 2003 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = USA | isbn =0-19-860641-9 | pages =905–906 }}
12. ^{{cite book| last= Hammond| first= N.G.L |authorlink= Nicholas Hammond (historian)|title= The Macedonian State. Origins, Institutions and History| origyear = 1989| edition = reprint |publisher= Oxford University Press|location=USA |year= 1993|isbn=0-19-814927-1}}
13. ^Michael Meier-Brügger, Indo-European linguistics, Walter de Gruyter, 2003, p.28,[https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Michael+Meier+Bruegger++%E2%80%98Indoeuropean+Linguistics%E2%80%99&hl=el&ei=D8MPTdvNEIab8QPJrd2EBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=Macedonian%20Doric&f=false on Google books]
14. ^Roisman, Worthington, 2010, "A Companion to Ancient Macedonia", Chapter 5: Johannes Engels, "Macedonians and Greeks", p. 95:"This (i.e. Pella curse tablet) has been judged to be the most important ancient testimony to substantiate that Macedonian was a north-western Greek and mainly a Doric dialect".
15. ^{{cite book|last=Hatzopoulos|first=M. B.|chapter=Macedonia and Macedonians|title=Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD|pages=44|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|year=2011|isbn=978-90-04-20650-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kjLPBsB2dIkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ancient+macedon&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjG84WktsDRAhUh4oMKHWO6AzEQ6AEIITAB#v=onepage&q=ancient%20macedon&f=false|ref=harv| editor-given = Robin J. | editor-surname = Lane Fox| postscript = .}}
16. ^Ahrens, F. H. L. (1843), De Graecae linguae dialectis, Göttingen, 1839–1843 ; Hoffmann, O. Die Makedonen. Ihre Sprache und ihr Volkstum, Göttingen, 1906.
17. ^[https://apps.carleton.edu/curricular/ling/assets/Lockwood.pdf W.B. Lockwood, "A panorama of Indo-European languages", Hutchinson University Library, London, p.6]
18. ^{{cite book|last=Hatzopoulos|first=M. B.|chapter=Macedonia and Macedonians|title=Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC – 300 AD|pages=43-45|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|year=2011|isbn=978-90-04-20650-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kjLPBsB2dIkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ancient+macedon&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjG84WktsDRAhUh4oMKHWO6AzEQ6AEIITAB#v=onepage&q=ancient%20macedon&f=false|ref=harv| editor-given = Robin J. | editor-surname = Lane Fox| postscript = .}}
19. ^B. Joseph (2001): "which could more properly be called Hellenic" This terminology may lead to misunderstandings, since the "Hellenic branch of Indo-European" is also used synonymously with the Greek branch (which contains all ancient and modern Greek dialects) in a narrower sense. Online paper
20. ^Eric Hamp & Douglas Adams (2013) "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages", Sino-Platonic Papers, vol 239.
21. ^A. Meillet [1913] 1965, Aperçu d'une histoire de la langue grecque, 7th ed., Paris, p. 61. I. Russu 1938, in Ephemeris Dacoromana 8, 105-232. Quoted after Brixhe/Panayotou 1994: 209.
22. ^Exceptions to the rule*{{lang|grc|ἀρφύς}} arhphys Macedonian (Attic ἁρπεδών harpedôn cord, yarn)*{{lang|grc|βάγαρον}} bagaron (Attic χλιαρόν chliaron 'warm') (cf. Attic phôgô 'roast') (Laconian)*{{lang|grc|βώνημα}} bônêma speech (Homeric, Ionic eirêma eireo) (cf. Attic phônêma sound, speech) (Laconian)*{{lang|grc|κεβλὴ}} keblê Callimachus Fr.140 Macedonian {{lang|grc|κεβ(α)λή}} keb(a)lē versus Attic {{lang|grc|κεφαλή}} kephalē ('head')*{{lang|grc|κεβλήπυρις}} keblēpyris ('red-cap bird'), (Aristophanes Birds)*{{lang|grc|κεβλήγονος}} keblêgonos born from the head, Euphorion 108 for Athena, with its seed in its head Nicander Alexipharmaca 433.*{{lang|grc|πέχαρι}} pechari deer (Laconian berkios) Amerias*{{lang|grc|Ὑπερβέρετος}} Hyperberetos Cretan month June, Macedonian September Hyperberetaios (Hellenic Calendars) (Attic hyperpheretês supreme, hyperpherô transfer,excel)
23. ^Greek Questions 292e – Question 9 – Why do Delphians call one of their months Bysios [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NL_WAAAAMAAJ].
24. ^Česko-jihoslovenská revue, [https://books.google.com/books?id=igrvAAAAMAAJ&q= Volume 4], 1934, p. 187.
25. ^¹Albrecht von Blumenthal, Hesychstudien, Stuttgart, 1930, 21.
26. ^Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon, κεβλήπυρις. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-21.
27. ^Olivier Masson, "Sur la notation occasionnelle du digamma grec par d'autres consonnes et la glose macédonienne abroutes", Bulletin de la Société de linguistique de Paris, 90 (1995) 231–239. Also proposed by O. Hoffmann and J. Kalleris.
28. ^¹A history of ancient Greek: from the beginnings to late antiquity, Maria Chritē, Maria Arapopoulou, Cambridge University Press (2007), p. 439–441
29. ^¹Packard Institute epigraphic database http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions//main {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121221117/http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/main |date=2007-11-21 }}
30. ^Eric Lhote (2006) Les lamelles Oraculaires de Dodone. Droz, Geneve.
31. ^Roberts, E.S., An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy vol. 1 no. 237
32. ^Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence, Elaine Matthews, Simon Hornblower, Peter Marshall Fraser, British Academy, Oxford University Press (2000), p. 103
33. ^Athens, bottom-IG I³ 89 – Kalindoia-Meletemata 11 K31 – Pydna-SEG 52:617,I (6) till SEG 52:617,VI – Mygdonia-SEG 49:750
34. ^Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence [https://books.google.com/books?id=SbVJvfu7EzsC&pg=PA114&dq=Eulandros&sig=yd7IcAoFOzbna01VP8TBL4fYh0Y] by Simon Hornblower, Elaine Matthews
35. ^SEG 49-750. Oraiokastro. Defixio, Classical period – Brill Reference
36. ^{{cite book|last=Anson|first=Edward M.|chapter=Why Study Ancient Macedonia and What This Companion is About|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=17, n. 57, n. 58|location=Oxford, Chichester, & Malden|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC&pg=PA14&dq=macedonians+greeks+ethnic+identity+political&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjeuIWAjsHRAhXh1IMKHS1eAewQ6AEIOTAF#v=onepage&q=macedonians%20greeks%20ethnic%20identity%20political&f=false|ref=harv| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington| postscript = .}}
37. ^"...but we may tentatively conclude that Macedonian is a dialect related to North-West Greek.", Olivier Masson, French linguist, “Oxford Classical Dictionary: Macedonian Language”, 1996.
38. ^J. P. Mallory & D.Q Adams – Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture, Chicago-London: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 361. {{ISBN|1-884964-98-2}}
39. ^{{lang|fr|Les anciens Macedoniens. Etude linguistique et historique|italic=yes}} by J. N. Kalleris
40. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=elk |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
41. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.theoi.com/Daimon/Arai.html |title=ARAE: Greek goddesses or spirits of curses; mythology: ARAI |publisher=Theoi.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
42. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=ghel-ond-%2C+ghol-n%E2%80%A2d-&btnG=Google+Search |title=Pokorny |publisher=Google.com |date=1967-03-27 |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
43. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGYGAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA45&dq=Sophocles+fragmenta++338+herodianus |title=Poetae scenici graeci, accedunt perditarum fabularum fragmenta |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
44. ^{{cite web |url=http://ehl.santafe.edu/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=%2Fdata%2Fie%2Fpiet&first=1&text_proto=madh&method_proto=substring&text_meaning=&method_meaning=substring&text_hitt=&method_hitt=substring&text_ind=&method_ind=substring&text_avest=&method_avest=substring&text_iran=&method_iran=substring&text_arm=&method_arm=substring&text_greek=&method_greek=substring&text_slav=&method_slav=substring&text_balt=&method_balt=substring&text_germ=&method_germ=substring&text_lat=&method_lat=substring&text_ital=&method_ital=substring&text_celt=&method_celt=substring&text_alb=&method_alb=substring&text_tokh=&method_tokh=substring&text_refer=&method_refer=substring&text_comment=&method_comment=substring&text_any=&method_any=substring&sort=proto |title=Pokorny Query madh |publisher=Ehl.santafe.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820000419/http://ehl.santafe.edu/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=%2Fdata%2Fie%2Fpiet&first=1&text_proto=madh&method_proto=substring&text_meaning=&method_meaning=substring&text_hitt=&method_hitt=substring&text_ind=&method_ind=substring&text_avest=&method_avest=substring&text_iran=&method_iran=substring&text_arm=&method_arm=substring&text_greek=&method_greek=substring&text_slav=&method_slav=substring&text_balt=&method_balt=substring&text_germ=&method_germ=substring&text_lat=&method_lat=substring&text_ital=&method_ital=substring&text_celt=&method_celt=substring&text_alb=&method_alb=substring&text_tokh=&method_tokh=substring&text_refer=&method_refer=substring&text_comment=&method_comment=substring&text_any=&method_any=substring&sort=proto |archive-date=2012-08-20 |dead-url=yes |df= }}
45. ^{{cite web|url=http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/etymology.cgi?single=1&basename=/data/ie/piet&text_number=2161&root=config |title=Pokorny's Dictionary |publisher=Starling.rinet.ru |date= |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
46. ^(Izela) Die Makedonen, Ihre Sprache und Ihr Volkstum [https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq2cyDw2TZ8C&pg=PA65&dq=%CE%B4%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD&sig=AKnyywqd6YLIsRUU2QaAFqBdF1A] by Otto Hoffmann
47. ^Aleksandar Mikić, Origin of the Words Denoting Some of the Most Ancient Old World Pulse Crops and Their Diversity in Modern European Languages (2012)
48. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=leek |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
49. ^{{cite web|url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature.AthV3.p0247&isize=XL&pview=hide |title=Deipnosophists 14.663-4 (pp. 1059–1062) |publisher=Digicoll.library.wisc.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
50. ^Kalleris, p. 238–240
51. ^Kalleris, p. 108
52. ^Athenaeus Deipnosophists [https://books.google.com/books?id=8N61u4keJX0C&pg=PA41&dq=dramis+daratos&sig=atUTI-o-Ku6dU70bXdhQol7Ko_Q#PPA40,M1 3.114b.]
53. ^Deipnosophists [https://books.google.com/books?id=T98IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA719&dq=koios+Athenaeus 10.455e.]
54. ^Pokorny {{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Gerhard Köbler {{cite web |url=http://www.koeblergerhard.de/germanistischewoerterbuecher/indogermanischeswoerterbuch/idgK.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2008-03-19 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003070702/http://www.koeblergerhard.de/germanistischewoerterbuecher/indogermanischeswoerterbuch/idgK.pdf |archivedate=2008-10-03 |df= }}
55. ^Kalleris, p. 172–179, 242
56. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=++++Maked.+ON+P%C3%9Adna+bhudhn%C6%92%29%2C+dissimil.+K%C3%9Adna%3F&btnG=Search |title=Pokorny,Pudna |publisher=Google.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
57. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aKCdWW18sM8C&pg=PA227&dq=pytna+pydna |title=Zeitschrift der Deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
58. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-MeAAAAMAAJ&q=pytna+pydna&dq=pytna+pydna&pgis=1 |title=The Dorians in Archaeology by Theodore Cressy Skeat |publisher=Books.google.com |date=1994-06-13 |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
59. ^Poetics (Aristotle)-XXI
60. ^Kalleris, p. 274
61. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq2cyDw2TZ8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Otto+Hoffmann+Makedonen++Sprache&lr=&sig=4zCGc8_RDV8u4ZlFhxW5iTqTovc |title=Otto Hoffmann, p. 270 (bottom) |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-03}}
62. ^Steven Colvin, Dialect in Aristophanes and the politics of language in Ancient Greek, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 279.
63. ^Livy, The History of Rome, 31.29.15, on Perseus
64. ^A. Panayotou: The position of the Macedonian dialect. In: Maria Arapopoulou, Maria Chritē, Anastasios-Phoivos Christides (eds.), A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 433–458 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=WJbd0m6YaFkC&pg=PA434&lpg=PA435&dq=Macedonians,+Aetolians,+and+Acarnanians+spoke+the+same+dialect+(context+dating+ca.&hl=de&sig=6co-S_dXeFu4YHWUvkQQPZ2I99w#PPA433,M1 Google Books]).
65. ^Livy, The History of Rome, 45.29, on Perseus
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