“Mercury Seven”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The Mercury Seven were the group of seven astronauts for Project Mercury announced by NASA on April 9, 1959. They are also referred to as the Original Seven and Astronaut Group 1. They piloted all the manned spaceflights of the Mercury program from May 1961 to May 1963. These seven original American astronauts were Scott Carpenter, Gordon Cooper, John Glenn, Gus Grissom, Wally Schirra, Alan Shepard, and Deke Slayton.

Members of the group flew on all of the NASA crewed orbital programs of the 20th century — Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and the Space Shuttle. Gus Grissom died in 1967, in the Apollo 1 fire; the others all survived past retirement from service. Alan Shepard became the first American in space in 1961, and walked on the Moon on Apollo 14 in 1971. John Glenn became the first American in orbit in 1962, and went on to become a U.S. senator. He flew on the Shuttle in 1998 to become the oldest person to fly in space. He was the last living member of the Mercury Seven when he died in 2016 at the age of 95.

Background

The launch of the Sputnik 1 satellite by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, started a technological and ideological competition with the United States known as the Space Race. The demonstration of American technological inferiority came as a profound shock to the American public. The Soviets followed up with Sputnik 2, which carried Laika, a Soviet space dog.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|pp=28–29, 37}} The logical next step was to put a man into orbit, something that the United States Air Force (USAF) and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) were already contemplating.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|pp=69–74}}

In response to the Sputnik crisis, the President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, decided to create a new civilian agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which would absorb NACA and be responsible for the overall direction of the American space program.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|p=82}} Meanwhile, the USAF launched a manned spaceflight project called Man in Space Soonest (MISS), for which it obtained approval from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and requested $133 million in funding.{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|pp=9–10}} MISS encountered technical challenges, which caused funding difficulties, which in turn created conflicts with the two agencies that should have been supporting it, NACA and the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA).{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|pp=91–93}} The core of the problem was the USAF's inability to articulate a clear military purpose for MISS.{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|pp=9–10}} In September 1958, the USAF agreed to transfer responsibility for MISS to NASA, which was established on October 1, 1958.{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|pp=11–12}}

On November 5, the Space Task Group (STG) was established at the NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, with Robert R. Gilruth as its director. On November 26, 1958, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his deputy, Hugh Dryden, adopted a suggestion by Abe Silverstein, the director of Space Flight Development at STG, that the manned spaceflight project be called Project Mercury. The name was publicly announced by Glennan on December 17, 1958, the 55th anniversary Wright brothers' first flight.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=29–30}}{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|pp=131–132}} The objective of Project Mercury was to launch a man into Earth orbit, return him safely to the Earth, and evaluate his capabilities in space.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|p=134}}

Selection criteria

The STG next had to decide on a name for the people who would fly into space. A brainstorming session was held on December 1, 1958. By analogy with "aeronaut", someone came up with the term "astronaut", which meant "star traveller", although Project Mercury's ambitions were far more limited. They thought that they had coined a new word, but the term had been used in science fiction since the 1920s.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=29–30}} A three-man panel consisting of Charles J. Donlan, Warren J. North and Allen O. Gamble drew up a civil service job specification for astronauts. The panel proposed that astronauts be in civil service grades 12 to 15, depending on qualifications and experience, with annual salary of $8,330 to $12,770 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|8330|1959|fmt=c}} to ${{Inflation|US|12770|1959|fmt=c}} in {{Inflation/year|US}}).{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|p=129}} The panel described the duties of an astronaut:{{quote|Although the entire satellite operation will be possible, in the early phases, without the presence of man, the astronaut will play an important role during the flight. He will contribute by monitoring the cabin environment and by making necessary adjustments. He will have continuous displays of his position and attitude and other instrument readings, and will have the capability of operating the reaction controls, and of initiating the descent from orbit. He will contribute to the operation of the communications system. In addition, the astronaut will make research observations that cannot be made by instruments; these include physiological, astronomical and meteorological observations.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|p=130}} }}

Although the panel considered that many people might possess the required skills—aircraft pilots, submariners, deep sea divers and mountain climbers were all considered likely prospects—it decided that they could be best met by military test pilots.{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|p=34}} Use of military test pilots would not only simplify the selection process, it would also satisfy security requirements, as the role would almost certainly involve the handling of classified information.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|p=129}} The decision to restrict selection to military test pilots was taken by Glennan, Dryden and Gilruth in the last week of December 1958, but the irony of using military test pilots in a civilian program was not overlooked, and in view of the President's express preference for a civil space program, Glennan thought it best to run the decision past Eisenhower. A meeting was arranged with the President, who was convinced by their arguments, and approval was given.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|p=130}}{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|pp=36–37}}

The height limit was a function of the design of the Mercury spacecraft, which could not accommodate someone taller.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|p=35}} It was still uncertain as to whether piloting in the conventional sense would ever be possible in a spacecraft,{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|p=131}} but from the beginning the spacecraft design provided for some degree of manual control.{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|p=38}}

Selection process

The first step in the selection process was to obtain the service records of graduates of test pilot schools from the United States Department of Defense. All services agreed to cooperate fully, and handed over their records. There were 508 military test pilots in total, of whom 225 were Air Force, 225 Navy, 23 Marine Corps and 35 Army. Donlan, North, Gamble and Robert B. Voas then went through the records in January 1959, and identified 110 pilots—five Marines, 47 from the Navy, and 58 from the Air Force—who met the rest of the minimum standards.{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|pp=36–39}} The 110 were then split into three groups, with the most promising in the first group.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|p=38}}

Sixty-nine candidates were brought to the Pentagon in Washington, DC, in two groups.^[1] The first group of 35 assembled at the Pentagon on February 2, 1959. The Navy and Marine Corps officers were welcomed by the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Arleigh Burke, while the United States Air Force officers were addressed by the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, General Thomas D. White. Both pledged their support to the Space Program, and promised that the careers of volunteers would not be adversely affected. NASA officials then briefed them on Project Mercury. They conceded that it would be a hazardous undertaking, but emphasized that it was of great national importance.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=46–51}}{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|pp=40–42}}

The candidates were given three briefings by NASA officials. The first was about NASA and Project Mercury; the second concerned the role of the pilot in the project; and the third was about the proposed astronaut training syllabus. In the afternoon candidates had short individual meetings with the NASA selection committee. It was emphasised that participation was entirely voluntary, that candidates were free to decline, and that there would be no career repercussions if they did so. Several declined at this point.{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|pp=40–42}}

The rest reported to NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC, the following day for further screening. Voas gave them a series of standardized tests: the Miller Analogies Test to measure IQ; the Minnesota Engineering Analogies Test to measure engineering aptitude; and the Doppelt Mathematical Reasoning Test to measure mathematical aptitude. Donlan, North and Gamble conducted interviews in which they asked technical questions, and queried candidates about their motivations for applying to the program. Candidates were evaluated by two USAF psychiatrists, George E. Ruff and Edwin Z. Levy. A USAF flight surgeon, William S. Augerson, went over the candidates' medical records. Some were found to be over the height limit, and were eliminated at this juncture.{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|pp=40–42}}

The process was repeated with a second group of 34 candidates a week later. Of the 69, six were found to be over the height limit, 15 were eliminated for other reasons, and 16 declined. This left NASA with 32 candidates: 15 Navy, 15 Air Force and two marines.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=57–58}} Since this was more than expected, NASA decided not to bother with the remaining 41 candidates, as 32 candidates seemed a more than adequate number from which to select 12 astronauts as planned. The degree of interest also indicated that far fewer would drop out during training than anticipated, which would result in training astronauts who would not be required to fly Project Mercury missions. It was therefore decided to cut the number of astronauts selected to just six.{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|p=42}}{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|pp=14–15}}

Then came a grueling series of physical and psychological tests at the Lovelace Clinic and the Wright Aerospace Medical Laboratory from January to March, under the direction of Albert H. Schwichtenberg, a retired USAF brigadier general.{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|pp=43–47}} The tests included spending hours on treadmills and tilt tables, submerging their feet in ice water, three doses of castor oil, and five enemas.^[1]{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|p=16}}^[1] Only one candidate, Jim Lovell, was eliminated on medical grounds at this stage, a diagnosis that was later found to be in error;{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=234–237}} thirteen others were recommended with reservations. The director of the NASA Space Task Group, Robert R. Gilruth, found himself unable to select only six from the remaining eighteen, and ultimately seven were chosen.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=234–237}}

The 25 finalists who were passed over were still a distinguished group. Three eventually became astronauts: Pete Conrad and Jim Lovell, who were selected with the next intake in 1962; and Edward Givens, who was selected with the fifth intake in 1965.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=284–285}} Others achieved high rank: Lawrence Heyworth Jr. became a rear admiral, Robert B. Baldwin and William P. Lawrence became vice admirals, and Thomas B. Hayward became an admiral.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=353–354}} He commanded the Seventh Fleet and the Pacific Fleet, and was Chief of Naval Operations.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=110–117}}

Demographics

The seven original American astronauts were Scott Carpenter, Gordon Cooper, John Glenn, Gus Grissom, Wally Schirra, Alan Shepard, and Deke Slayton. Grissom, Cooper, and Slayton were Air Force pilots; Shepard, Carpenter, and Schirra were Navy pilots, and Glenn was a Marine Corps pilot.^[1]

All were male and white, which was unsurprising as women were not yet accepted into the military test pilot schools,{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|p=100}} and the first African-American to graduate from the USAF Experimental Test Pilot School, John L. Whitehead Jr.,{{sfn|Gubert|Sawyer|Fannin|2002|pp=291–293}} did so only in January 1958,{{sfn|Eppley|1963|p=23}} and was not one of the finalists.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|pp=110–117}} Yet the Mercury Seven were similar beyond what was a simple result of the section criteria. Four were their fathers' namesakes.^[1] All were the eldest or only sons in their families.{{sfn|Sherrod|1975|p=152}} All were born in the United States,{{sfn|Atkinson|Shafritz|1985|p=100}} and were raised in small towns. All were married with children, and all were Protestants.^[1]

All had brown hair except Glenn, who was a redhead. Shepard was the tallest, at the maximum height of {{convert|5|ft|11|in}}; Grissom, the shortest at {{convert|5|ft|7|in}}. Their ages at the time of selection ranged from 32 (Cooper) to 37 (Glenn). Cooper was also the lightest, at {{convert|150|lbs}}, while Glenn was at the maximum weight of {{convert|180|lb}}, and Schirra was slightly overweight at {{convert|185|lb}}, and had to slim down to be accepted. Both had to watch their weight carefully while in the space program. Cooper, Shepard and Slayton had blue eyes; Grissom and Schirra's were brown; and Glenn and Carpenter's were green.{{sfn|Mercury Seven|2010|p=9}} IQs ranged from 135 to 147.^[1]

All seven had attended postsecondary institutions in the 1940s. Of the five astronauts who had completed undergraduate degrees before being selected, two (Shepard and Schirra) were graduates of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland.^[1] Following a decade of intermittent studies, Cooper completed his degree at the Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) in 1956.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|p=337}} Grissom earned a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from Purdue University in 1950,{{sfn|Boomhower|2004|pp=55–57}} and second bachelor's degree, in aeromechanics, from the AFIT in 1956.{{sfn|Boomhower|2004|p=71}} Slayton graduated from the University of Minnesota with a bachelor's degree in aeronautical engineering in 1949.{{sfn|Burgess|2011|p=345}}

Glenn and Carpenter did not meet all of their schools' degree requirements, including the completion of Glenn's senior year in residence and final proficiency exam, and Carpenter's final course in heat transfer. Although both were admitted on the basis of professional equivalency, Glenn had also completed additional coursework as a part-time student at the University of Maryland, College Park from 1956 to 1959. Both were ultimately awarded their bachelor's degrees after their 1962 space flights.^[2]{{sfn|Carpenter|Stoever|2003|p=97}}

Despite the extensive physical examinations, Slayton had an undiagnosed atrial fibrillation, which resulted in his grounding on the eve of what would have been his first space flight, and the second manned orbital mission.{{sfn|Carpenter|Stoever|2003|pp=238–240}}

NASA introduction

NASA introduced the astronauts in Washington, DC on April 9, 1959.^[3] Although the agency viewed Project Mercury's purpose as an experiment to determine whether humans could survive space travel, the seven men immediately became national heroes and were compared by Time magazine to "Columbus, Magellan, Daniel Boone, and the Wright brothers."^[4] Two hundred^[4] reporters overflowed the room used for the announcement and alarmed the astronauts, who were unused to such a large audience.{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|pp=16–18}}

Because they wore civilian clothes, the audience did not see them as military test pilots but "mature, middle-class Americans, average in height and visage, family men all," ready for single combat versus worldwide Communism. To the astronauts' surprise, the reporters asked about their personal lives instead of war records or flight experience, or about the details of Mercury. After Glenn responded by speaking eloquently "on God, country, and family" the others followed his example,{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|pp=18–19}} and the reporters "lustily applauded them."^[4]

Group members

Influence

The astronauts participated in Project Mercury's design and planning.{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|pp=25–26}} They divided the work between them. Carpenter had training in airborne electronics and celestial navigation, so he assumed responsibility for the spacecraft's communications and navigation systems. Grissom had a degree in mechanical engineering, so he became responsible for the attitude control systems. Glenn had experience flying many types of aircraft, so he oversaw the cockpit layout. Schirra drew responsibility for the life support systems and the pressure suits. Drawing on his experience as a Naval officer, Shepard looked after the tracking network and liaised with the Navy on recovery operations. Cooper and Slayton were air force captains with engineering backgrounds, so they dealt with the Redstone Arsenal and Convair, who built the Redstone and Atlas boosters used by Project Mercury.{{sfn|Swenson|Grimwood|Alexander|1966|pp=235–237}}

The astronauts drew their salaries as military officers. This provided $9 per day ({{Inflation|US|9|1959|fmt=eq}}) for day trips, and $12 per day ({{Inflation|US|12|1959|fmt=eq}}) for overnight trips, which did not cover the cost of staying in hotels or eating in restaurants. An astronaut did not dare pick up the check for a business lunch, which might come to $35 ({{Inflation|US|35|1959|fmt=eq}}), equivalent to their family's food money for two weeks. An important component of their income was flight pay. In Cooper's case, it amounted to $145 a month ({{Inflation|US|145|1959|fmt=eq}}). NASA saw no reason to provide the astronauts with aircraft, so they flew to meetings around the country on commercial airlines. This not only reduced the money in their pockets, it struck at the core of their self-image as pilots.{{sfn|Wolfe|1979|pp=152–153}}

To continue earning their flight pay, Grissom and Slayton would go out on the weekend to Langley Air Force Base, and attempt to put in the required four hours a month, competing for T-33 aircraft with senior deskbound colonels and generals. Cooper travelled to McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base in Tennessee, where a friend let him fly higher-performance F-104B jets. This came up when Cooper had lunch with William Hines, a reporter for The Washington Star, and was duly reported in the paper. Cooper then discussed the issue with Congressman James G. Fulton. The matter was taken up by the House Committee on Science and Astronautics.{{sfn|Cooper|Henderson|2000|pp=24–25}}{{sfn|Wolfe|1979|pp=152–153}} Within weeks the astronauts were given priority access to USAF T-33s, F-102s and F-106s at Langley. In 1962, NASA acquired a fleet of T-38 for their use.{{sfn|Burgess|2016|pp=42–43}}

The seven astronauts agreed to share equally any proceeds from interviews regardless of who flew first.^[4]^[14] In August 1959, they and their wives signed a contract with Life magazine for $500,000 ({{Inflation|US|500000|1959|fmt=eq|r=-5}}) in exchange for exclusive access to their private lives, homes, and families.^[14]{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|p=16}} Their official spokesman from 1959 to 1963 was NASA's public affairs officer, USAF Lieutenant Colonel John "Shorty" Powers, who as a result became known in the press as the "eighth astronaut".^[15]

After General Motors executive Ed Cole presented Shepard with a brand-new Chevrolet Corvette, Jim Rathmann, a racing car driver who won the Indianapolis 500 in 1960, and was a Chevrolet dealer in Melbourne, Florida, convinced Cole to turn this into an ongoing marketing campaign. Henceforth, astronauts were able to lease brand-new Corvettes for a dollar a year. All of the Mercury Seven but Glenn took up the offer. Cooper, Grissom and Shepard were soon racing their Corvettes around Cape Canaveral, with the military and local police ignoring their exploits. From a marketing perspective, it was very successful, and helped the highly priced Corvette become established as a desirable brand.{{sfn|Burgess|2016|p=36}} "I soon learned", Gene Kranz later recalled, "if you saw someone wearing a short-sleeved Ban-Lon shirt and aviator sunglasses, you were looking at an astronaut."{{sfn|Kranz|2000|p=14}}

While busy with the intense training for their flights,{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|p=22}} the men also "roughhoused and drank and drove fast and got into sexual peccadilloes". {{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|p=35}} Some had affairs with the female astronaut groupies that flocked around them.{{sfn|Thompson|2004|p=336}} NASA actively sought to protect the astronauts and the agency from negative publicity and maintain an image of "clean-cut, all-American boy[s]."{{sfn|Logsdon|Launius|2008|p=20}}

As additional groups of astronauts were selected in the 1960s, the Mercury Seven remained in control. The Astronaut Office, which was headed by Shepard, was one of three divisions in the Directorate of Flight Crew Operations, which was headed by Slayton. Since twenty-six of the first thirty astronauts were military personnel, the Astronaut Office had a military character, although few of the astronauts wore their uniforms even as much as once a year. Shepard ran it on a "rank has it privileges" basis. Training classes were always ungraded; the Mercury astronauts had nothing to gain and much to lose from being objectively compared to the newer classes. Attendance was always voluntary.{{sfn|Cunningham|2009|pp=40–43}}

The Mercury Seven wrote first-hand accounts of their selection and preparation for the Mercury missions in the 1962 book We Seven.{{sfn|Mercury Seven|2010|pp=5–6}} In 1979 Tom Wolfe published a less sanitized version of their story in The Right Stuff.^[16] Wolfe's book was the basis for the 1983 film of the same name directed by Philip Kaufman.^[17]

Awards and honors

The Mercury 7 group won the Society of Experimental Test Pilots' Iven C. Kincheloe Award in 1963.^[18] President Kennedy presented the astronaut group the 1962 Collier Trophy at the White House "for pioneering manned space flight in the United States".^[19]{{sfn|Warren-Findley|1998|p=165}}

Notes

1. ^{{cite web| title =Astronaut Selection | work =Project Mercury Overview| publisher =NASA| date =November 30, 2006| url =http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mercury/missions/astronaut.html#.VLKiV3vAuJw| accessdate = January 11, 2015 }}
2. ^{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1915&dat=19831004&id=l0RSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=KzYNAAAAIBAJ&pg=3816,773331|date=October 4, 1983|title=College says Glenn degree was deserved|newspaper=The Day|location=New London, Connecticut |agency=Associated Press|access-date=February 11, 2019|via=Google News}}
3. ^{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/spacesuits/historygallery/mer-apr59.html |title=Mercury - April 1959 |last=Deiss |first=Heather |date=2013-06-05 |website=NASA |access-date=2019-03-28 |df=mdy-all}}
4. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰"{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864563,00.html |title=Rendezvous with Destiny |magazine=Time |date=April 20, 1959 |access-date=January 27, 2019 |url-access=subscription }}
5. ^{{cite news|title=Scott Carpenter, One of the Original Seven Astronauts, Is Dead at 88|newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/11/us/scott-carpenter-mercury-astronaut-who-orbited-earth-dies-at-88.html?pagewanted=2|date=October 10, 2013|last1=Goldstein|first1=Richard |page=B16|access-date=January 27, 2019}}
6. ^{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/40thmerc7/cooper.htm |title=L. Gordon Cooper Jr. |last1=Gray |first1=Tara |work=40th Anniversary of Mercury 7 |publisher=NASA |access-date=July 10, 2015}}
7. ^{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/40thmerc7/glenn.htm|work=40th Anniversary of Mercury 7 |title=John H. Glenn, Jr. |first=Tara |last=Gray |publisher=NASA |access-date=April 24, 2015}}
8. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2016/12/john-glenn/john-glenn.html|title=John Glenn, American hero, aviation icon and former U.S. senator, dies at 95|newspaper=The Columbus Dispatch|access-date=December 8, 2016}}
9. ^{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/US/john-glenn-american-orbit-earth-dies/story?id=44045957|title=John Glenn, First American to Orbit the Earth, Dies|newspaper=ABC News|publisher=ABC|location=United States|date=December 8, 2016|accessdate=December 8, 2016}}
10. ^{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/Apollo204/zorn/grissom.htm|title=Detailed Biographies of Apollo I Crew – Gus Grissom|publisher=NASA |access-date=February 21, 2017|last1=White|first1=Mary}}
11. ^{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/40thmerc7/schirra.htm |title=Walter M. Schirra Jr. |work=The 40th Anniversary of the Mercury 7 |first=Tara |last=Gray |publisher=NASA |access-date=July 12, 2015}}
12. ^{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/40thmerc7/shepard.htm |title=Alan B. Shepard, Jr. |accessdate=December 29, 2006 |last=Gray |first=Tara |work=40th Anniversary of the Mercury 7 |publisher=NASA }}
13. ^{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/40thmerc7/slayton.htm|title=Donald K. "Deke" Slayton |last1=Gray|first1=Tara|access-date=October 6, 2016|work=40th Anniversary of Mercury 7 |publisher=NASA }}
14. ^¹"{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864827,00.html |title=The Big Story |magazine=Time |date=August 24, 1959 |access-date=February 15, 2019 |url-access=subscription}}
15. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.marketingthemoon.com/blog/2014/2/13/the-original-voice-of-the-astronauts-john-shorty-powers |title=The Original "Voice of the Astronauts" - John "Shorty" Powers |publisher=Marketing the Moon |access-date=February 15, 2019 }}
16. ^{{cite magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,947426,00.html |title=Books: Skywriting with Gus and Deke |first=R.Z. |last=Sheppard |magazine=Time |date=September 24, 1979 |access-date=February 15, 2019 |url-access=subscription}}
17. ^{{cite magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,926240,00.html |title=Cinema: Saga of a Magnificent Seven |magazine=Time |first=Richard |last=Schickel |author-link=Richard Schickel |date= October 3, 1983 |access-date=February 15, 2019 |url-access=subscription}}
18. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26948748/chicago_tribune/|title=Cooper the Cool jockeys Faith 7—between naps |last1=Wolfe |first1=Tom |author-link=Tom Wolfe |newspaper=Chicago Tribune|date=October 25, 1979|page=22|via=Newspapers.com}}
19. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/26947987/chicago_tribune/|title=Astronauts Have Their Day at the White House|newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=October 11, 1963|page=3|via=Newspapers.com|access-date=January 27, 2019}}