| 词条 | Muslim world | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community (Ummah), consisting of all those who adhere to the religion of Islam,[1] or to societies where Islam is practiced.[2][3] In a modern geopolitical sense, these terms refer to countries where Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.[4][3] The term Muslim-majority countries is an alternative often used for the latter sense.[5] The history of the Muslim world spans about 1400 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, science, philosophy, and technology, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age. All Muslims look for guidance to the Quran and believe in the prophetic mission of Muhammad, but disagreements on other matters have led to appearance of different religious schools and branches within Islam. In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under influence or colonial domination of European powers. The nation states that emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models, and they have been affected by secular and as well as religious trends.[6]{{as of|2013}}, the combined GDP (nominal) of 49 Muslim majority countries was US$5.7 trillion,[7] {{as of|2016}}, they contributed 8% of the world's total.[8] As of 2015, 1.8 billion or about 24.1% of the world population are Muslims.[9] By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim, 91% in the Middle East-North Africa (MENA),[10] 89% in Central Asia,[11] 40% in Southeast Asia,[12] 31% in South Asia,[13][14] 30% in Sub-Saharan Africa,[15] 25% in Asia–Oceania,[16] around 6% in Europe,[17] and 1% in the Americas.[18][19][20][21]History{{main|History of Islam|Timeline of Islamic history}}Muslim history involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. The history of Islam began in the Arabian Peninsula when the Islamic prophet Muhammad received the first revelation of the Quran in the 7th century in the cave of Hira in the month of Ramadan. According to tradition, he was supposedly commanded by Allah to convey this message to the people, and to be patient with those hostile to it. These included the leaders of the Quraysh, the ruling tribe of Mecca, who opposed the assertion of tawhid (monotheism) and abolishing what Muhammed branded "idolatry", meaning the worship of gods other than Allah at the Kaaba, such as Hubal and the goddesses al-Lāt, Al-‘Uzzá and Manāt. After 13 years of spreading this message, despite increased persecution by the Quraysh, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina to establish a new state under the prophet's leadership and away from persecution. This migration, called the Hijra, marks the first year of the Islamic calendar. Islam was then spread to other parts of the Arabian Peninsula over the course of Muhammad's life. After Muhammad died in 632, his successors (the Caliphs) continued to lead the Muslim community based on his teachings and guidelines of the Quran. The majority of Muslims consider the first four successors to be 'rightly guided' or Rashidun. The Rashidun Caliphate's conquests spread Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula, stretching from northwest India, across Central Asia, the Near East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees. The Arab Muslims were unable to conquer the entire Christian Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor, however. The succeeding Umayyad Caliphate attempted two failed sieges of Constantinople in 674–678 and 717–718. Meanwhile, the Muslim community tore itself apart into the rivalling Sunni and Shia sects since the killing of caliph Uthman in 656, resulting in a succession crisis that has never been resolved.[22] The following First, Second and Third Fitnas and finally the Abbasid Revolution (746–750) also definitively destroyed the political unity of the Muslims, who have been inhabiting multiple states ever since.[23] Subsequent empires dominated by Muslims, such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Seljukids, Almoravids, Almohads and Marinids in Morocco, Nasrids in the Iberian Peninsula, Ayyubids, Bahris and Burjis in Egypt, Wagadou, Kanem-Bornu, Manden and Songhai in the Sahel, Ajuran, Adal and Warsangali in Somalia, Mughals in the Indian subcontinent (India, Bangladesh, Afghanistan e.t.c), Ghaznavids, Khwarazmids, Timurids and Safavids in Persia and Ottomans in Anatolia, were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. 19th-century colonialism and 20th-century decolonisation have resulted in several independent Muslim-majority states around the world, with vastly differing attitudes towards and political influences granted to, or restricted for, Islam from country to country. These have revolved around the question of Islam's compatibility with other ideological concepts such as secularism, nationalism (especially Arab nationalism and Pan-Arabism, as opposed to Pan-Islamism), socialism (see also Arab socialism and socialism in Iran), democracy (see Islamic democracy), republicanism (see also Islamic republic), liberalism and progressivism, feminism, capitalism and more. Classical culture{{Main|Islamic Golden Age}}The term "Islamic Golden Age" has been attributed to a period in history wherein science, economic development and cultural works in most of the Muslim-dominated world flourished.[24][25] The age is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786–809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into Arabic,[26][27] and to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258.[28] The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadiths, such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr," that stressed the value of knowledge. The major Islamic capital cities of Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba became the main intellectual centers for science, philosophy, medicine, and education.[29] During this period, the Muslim world was a collection of cultures; they drew together and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Greek, Roman, Persian, Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations.[30] Ceramics{{Further|Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam}}Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use of ceramic glaze was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery.[31] Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another contribution was the development of fritware, originating from 9th-century Iraq.[32] Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).[33] Literature{{Main|Islamic literature}}{{Further|Islamic poetry}}The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world is One Thousand and One Nights (In Persian: hezār-o-yek šab > Arabic: ʔalf-layl-at-wa-l’-layla= One thousand Night and (one) Night) or *Arabian Nights, a name invented by early Western translators, which is a compilation of folk tales from Sanskrit, Persian, and later Arabian fables. The original concept is derived from a pre-Islamic Persian prototype Hezār Afsān (Thousand Fables) that relied on particular Indian elements.[35] It reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[36] All Arabian fantasy tales tend to be called Arabian Nights stories when translated into English, regardless of whether they appear in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights or not.[36] This work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[37] Imitations were written, especially in France.[38] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor and Ali Baba. A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love. Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan. Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to Al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.[39][40]Theologus Autodidactus,[41][42] written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel.[43] It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. Ibn al-Nafis' fiction explained Islamic religious teachings via science and Islamic philosophy.[44]A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations might have later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English.[45][46][47][48] Philosophus Autodidactus, continuing the thoughts of philosophers such as Aristotle from earlier ages, inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist.[51] Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy,[49] derived features of and episodes about Bolgia[50] from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology:[51][52] the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[53] as Liber Scale Machometi[54]) concerning the ascension to Heaven of Muhammad,[55] and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi.[56] The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[57]Philosophy{{Main|Contemporary Islamic philosophy}}{{Further|Logic in Islamic philosophy|Ilm al-Kalam}}One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture."[58] Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.[58] The Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with various subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook The Canon of Medicine was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. He also wrote The Book of Healing, an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia. One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries affected the rise of secular thought in Europe.[59] He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[60] Another figure from the Islamic Golden Age, Avicenna, also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. He was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} Yet another influential philosopher who had an influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdha, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[61] condition of possibility, materialism,[62] and Molyneux's problem.[63] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke,[64] Gottfried Leibniz,[48] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,[65] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,[66] and Samuel Hartlib.[67] Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.[68] Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer in evolutionary thought; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Al-Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history.[69] Sciences{{Main|Timeline of science and engineering in the Islamic world}}{{See also|Physics in medieval Islam|Psychology in medieval Islam|Mathematics in medieval Islam|Astronomy in medieval Islam|Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam}}
Muslim scientists contributed to advances in the sciences. They placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from circa 1000, in his Book of Optics. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist."[70] al-Khwarzimi's invented the log base systems that are being used today, he also contributed theorems in trigonometry as well as limits.[71] Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanced decagonal quasicrystal geometry (discovered half a millennium later in the 1970s and 1980s in the West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture.[72] Muslim physicians contributed to the field of medicine, including the subjects of anatomy and physiology: such as in the 15th-century Persian work by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas entitled Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body) which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems; or in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the theory of pulmonary circulation. Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (also known as Abulcasis) contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with his Kitab al-Tasrif ("Book of Concessions"), a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy.[73] In astronomy, Muḥammad ibn Jābir al-Ḥarrānī al-Battānī improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Averroes, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mu'ayyad al-Din al-'Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories were also discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Al-Biruni, Al-Sijzi, Qotb al-Din Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī. The astrolabe, though originally developed by the Greeks, was perfected by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and was subsequently brought to Europe. Some most famous scientists from the medieval Islamic world include Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Farabi, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Biruni, Avicenna, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn Khaldun. Technology{{Main|List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world|Arab Agricultural Revolution}}In technology, the Muslim world adopted papermaking from China.[79] The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via predominantly Islamic countries,[74] where formulas for pure potassium nitrate[75][76] were developed. Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim-majority countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Muslim states between China and Europe. Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power and wind power,[77] fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic).[78] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, paper mills, hullers, sawmills, ship mills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[79] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[80] Such advances made it possible for industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.[81] Gunpowder EmpiresScholars often use the term Gunpowder Empires to describe the Islamic empires of the Safavid, Ottoman and Mughal. Each of these three empires had considerable military exploits using the newly developed firearms, especially cannon and small arms, to create their empires.[82] They existed primarily between the fourteenth and the late seventeenth centuries.[83] Great Divergence{{main|Great Divergence}}{{quote box|width=25%|quote="Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason"|source=Ibrahim Muteferrika, Rational basis for the Politics of Nations (1731)[85]}} The Great Divergence was the reason why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like the Mughal Empire, Ottoman Empire and many smaller states in the pre-modern Greater Middle East, and initiated a period known as 'colonialism'.[85] Colonialism{{main|Colonial empire|Colonialism}}Beginning with the 15th century, colonialism by European powers (particularly, but not exclusively, Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Russia, Austria, and Belgium) profoundly affected Muslim-majority societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim-dominated societies.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} A number of Muslim-majority societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating the rise of Pan-Islamism; or affirmed more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals; and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers.[86] The only Muslim-majority regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} Turkey was one of the first colonial powers of the world with the Ottoman empire ruling several states for over 6 centuries. Postcolonial era{{Further|Decolonization}}{{expand section|date=August 2014}}The end of the European colonial domination has led to creation of a number of nation states with significant Muslim populations. These states drew on Islamic traditions to varying degree and in various ways in organizing their legal, educational and economic systems.[87] ==Geography== {{Main|Islam by country}}Because the terms "Muslim world" and "Islamic world" are disputed, since all countries have some non-Muslims and there is not universal agreement on what proportion of the population would be required or if other factors (such as state recognition) should qualify a given country.[88][89][5] One commonly supported rule of thumb is a Muslim population of more than 50%.[88][5] Jones (2005) defines a "large minority" as being between 30% and 50%, which described nine countries in 2000, namely Bosnia and Herzegovina, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kazakhstan, Macedonia, Nigeria, and Tanzania.[5] According to a 2010 study and released January 2011,[90][91] Islam has 1.5 billion adherents, making up over 22% of the world population.[92][93][94] According to the Pew Research Center in 2015 there were 50 Muslim-majority countries.[95][96] Worldatlas.com (April 2017) identified 45 'Islamic countries'. Among the Islamic states are: Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Mauritania, Oman, and Yemen. Other states where Islam is the politically defined state religion are: Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Algeria, Malaysia, Maldives, Morocco, Libya, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Somalia and Brunei. Other Muslim-majority countries include: Niger, Indonesia, Sudan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sierra Leone, Djibouti, Albania, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Chad, The Gambia, Guinea, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Mali, Northern Cyprus, Nigeria, Senegal, Syria, Lebanon, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Turkey and Uzbekistan.[97] Demographics{{Main|Muslim population growth}}More than 24.1% of the world's population is Muslim.[98][99] Current estimates conclude that the number of Muslims in the world is around 1.8 billion.[98] Muslims are the majority in 49 countries,[100] they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. Major languages spoken by Muslims include Arabic, Bengali, Urdu, Hindi, Punjabi, Malay, Javanese, Sundanese, Swahili, Hausa, Fula, Berber, Tuareg, Somali, Albanian, Spanish, Bosnian, Russian, Turkish, Azeri, Kazakh, Uzbek, Tatar, Persian, Kurdish, Pashto, Tamil, Telugu, Balochi, Sindhi, Malayalam, and Kashmiri, among many others. ReligionThe two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of the imam. Sunnis believe that the true political successor of the Prophet according to the Sunnah should be selected based on ٍShura (consultation), as was done at the Saqifah which selected Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law, to be Muhammad's political but not his religious successor. Shia, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad designated his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his true political as well as religious successor.[101] The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, between 87–90%, are Sunni.[102] Shias and other groups make up the rest, about 10–13% of overall Muslim population. The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are: Iran – 96%,[103] Azerbaijan – 85%,[104] Iraq – 60/70%,[105] Bahrain – 70%, Yemen – 47%,[106] Turkey – 28%,[107][108][109] Lebanon – 27%, Syria – 17%, Afghanistan – 15%, Pakistan – 5%/10%,[110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117][118] and India – 5%.[119] The Kharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population.[120] Islamic schools and branches{{main|Islamic schools and branches}}The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three major sects: Sunnis, Shi'as and Kharijites. Each sect developed distinct jurisprudence schools (madhhab) reflecting different methodologies of jurisprudence (fiqh). The major Sunni madhhabs are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. The major Shi'a branches are Twelver (Imami), Ismaili (Sevener) and Zaidi (Fiver). Isma'ilism later split into Nizari Ismaili and Musta’li Ismaili, and then Mustaali was divided into Hafizi and Taiyabi Ismailis.[121] It also gave rise to the Qarmatian movement and the Druze faith. Twelver Shiism developed Ja'fari jurisprudence whose branches are Akhbarism and Usulism, and other movements such as Alawites, Shaykism[122] and Alevism.[123][124] Similarly, Kharijites were initially divided into five major branches: Sufris, Azariqa, Najdat, Adjarites and Ibadis. Among these numerous branches, only Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali, Imamiyyah-Ja'fari-Usuli, Nizārī Ismā'īlī, Alevi,[125] Zaydi, Ibadi, Zahiri, Alawite,[126] Druze and Taiyabi communities have survived. In addition, new schools of thought and movements like Quranist Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims and African American Muslims later emerged independently. RefugeesAccording to the UNHCR, Muslim-majority countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010.{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}} Since then Muslim nations have absorbed refugees from recent conflicts, including the uprising in Syria.[127] In July 2013, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 1.8 million.[128] In Asia, an estimated 625,000 refugees from Rakhine, Myanmar, mostly Muslim, had crossed the border into Bangladesh since August 2017.[129] EducationIn some Muslim-majority countries, illiteracy is a problem, whereas in others literacy rates are high. In Egypt, the largest Muslim-majority Arab country, the youth female literacy rate exceeds that for males.[130] Lower literacy rates are more prevalent in South Asian countries such as in Afghanistan and Pakistan, but are rapidly increasing.[131] In the Eastern Middle East, Iran has a high level of youth literacy at 98%,[132] whereas Iraq's youth literacy rate has sharply declined from 85% to 57%, during the American-led war and subsequent occupation.[133] Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country in the world, has a very high youth literacy rate at 99%.[134] In Afghanistan, seminaries are operated by politically active religious organizations and have taken the place of basic education not provided and funded by the government.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} A 2016 Pew Research Center study about religion and education around the world found that Muslims have the lowest average levels of education after Hindus, with an average of 5.6 years of schooling.[135] About 36% of all Muslims have no formal schooling,[135] Muslims have also the lowest average levels of higher education of any major religious group, with only 8% having graduate and post-graduate degrees.[135] The highest of years of schooling among Muslim-majority countries found in Uzbekistan (11.5),[135] Kuwait (11.0)[135] and Kazakhstan (10.7).[135] In addition, the average of years of schooling in countries where Muslims are the majority is 6.0 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (7.7 years of schooling).[135] In the youngest age (25–34) group surveyed, Young Muslims have the lowest average levels of education of any major religious group, with an average of 6.7 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (8.6 years of schooling).[135] The study found that Muslims have a significant amount of gender inequality in educational attainment, since Muslim women have an average of 4.9 years of schooling; compare to an average of 6.4 years of schooling among Muslim men.[135] LiteracyThe literacy rate in the Muslim world varies. Azerbaijan is in second place in the Index of Literacy of World Countries. Some members such as Iran, Kuwait, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have over 97% literacy rates, whereas literacy rates are the lowest in Mali, Afghanistan, Chad and parts of Africa. In 2015, the International Islamic News Agency reported that nearly 37% of the population of the Muslim world is unable to read or write, basing that figure on reports from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.[136] ScholarshipSeveral Muslim-majority countries like Turkey, Iran, Egypt, and Pakistan exhibit high rate of citable scientific publications.[137][138] Economy{{See also|Economy of the Middle East}}The Muslim world has been afflicted with economic stagnation for many centuries.[139][140] In 2011, U.S. President Barack Obama stated that apart from crude oil, the exports of the entire Greater Middle East with its 400 million population roughly equals that of Switzerland.[141] It has also been estimated that the exports of Finland, a European country of only five million, exceeded those of the entire 370 million-strong Arab world, excluding oil and natural gas.[142] CultureThroughout history, Muslim cultures have been diverse ethnically, linguistically and regionally.
ArtsThe term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.[144][145] Architecture{{Main|Islamic architecture}}Encompasses both secular and religious styles, the design and style made by Muslims and their construction of buildings and structures in Islamic culture included the architectural types: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque.[146] Through Islamic architecture, effects of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. Generally, the use of Islamic geometric patterns and foliage based arabesques were striking. There was also the use of decorative calligraphy instead of pictures which were haram (forbidden) in mosque architecture. Note that in secular architecture, human and animal representation was indeed present. The North African and Iberian Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[147] in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Persian-style mosques are characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades, and arches supported each by several pillars. In South Asia, elements of Hindu architecture were employed, but were later superseded by Persian designs. Aniconism{{Main|Aniconism in Islam}}No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Moreover, Muslims believe that God is incorporeal, making any two- or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Instead, Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that, according to Islam, he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Quran begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Such aniconism and iconoclasm[148] can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology. Arabesque{{Main|Arabesque (Islamic art)}}Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as arabesque. Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found in pre-Islamic pagan religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, notably the miniature style made famous in Persia and under the Ottoman Empire which featured paintings of people and animals, and also depictions of Quranic stories and Islamic traditional narratives. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque.[149] Islamic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Quranic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides of minbars, and so on.[149] Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.[150] The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into European architecture.[151] Girih{{Main|Girih}}Girih is an Islamic decorative art form used in architecture and handicrafts (book covers, tapestry, small metal objects), consisting of geometric lines that form an interlaced strapwork. Islamic calligraphy{{Main|Islamic calligraphy}}Islamic calligraphy, is the artistic practice of handwriting, calligraphy, and by extension, of bookmaking, in the lands sharing a common Islamic cultural heritage. CalendarIslamic lunar calendarThe Islamic calendar, Muslim calendar or Hijri calendar (AH) is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in many Muslim-majority countries and determines the proper days on which to observe the annual fast (see Ramadan), to attend Hajj, and to celebrate other Islamic holidays and festivals. Solar Hijri calendarThe Solar Hijri calendar, also called the Shamsi Hijri calendar, and abbreviated as SH, is the official calendar of Iran and Afghanistan. It begins on the vernal equinox. Each of the twelve months corresponds with a zodiac sign. The first six months have 31 days, the next five have 30 days, and the last month has 29 days in usual years but 30 days in leap years. The year of Prophet Muhammad's migration to Medina (622 CE) is fixed as the first year of the calendar, and the New Year's Day always falls on the March equinox. Contemporary developments{{refimprove section|date=November 2015}}As of 2015 Islam has 1.8 billion adherents, making up over 24.1% of the world population.[9] Due to globalization, Islam today has taken root and influenced cultures in places far from the traditional boundaries of the Muslim world.[152] GovernmentDemocracy and compulsion indexesThe Open Doors USA organization, in its 2012 survey of countries around the world that persecute Christians, listed 37 members of the Muslim world amongst the top 50 countries where Christians face the most severe persecution. 9 of the top 10 countries are Islamic-majority states.[153] Religion and state{{Original research section|date=January 2018}}{{Main|List of Muslim-majority countries|List of countries by Muslim population}}{{Further|Political aspects of Islam|Islam and secularism}}As the Muslim world came into contact with secular ideals, societies responded in different ways. Some Muslim-majority countries are secular. Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union.[154][155][156]{{failed verification|date=January 2018|reason=Page 129 does not claim Azerbaijan was "first secular republic in the Muslim world". It doesn't even claim Azerbaijan is part of the "Muslim world". OR.}} Turkey has been governed as a secular state since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.[157] By contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah, Ruhollah Khomeini.[158] Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion. In those countries, the legal code is largely secular. Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed by Sharia law. Islamic statesIslamic states have adopted Islam as the ideological foundation of state and constitution. {{Div col}}
State religionThe following Muslim-majority nation-states have endorsed Islam as their state religion. {{Div col}}
Unclear or no declarationThese are neutral states where the constitutional or official announcement regarding status of religion is not clear or unstated.
Secular statesSecular states in the Muslim world have declared separation between civil/government affairs and religion. {{Div col|colwidth=}}
Law and ethics{{unreferenced section|date=January 2018}}{{Further|Islamic ethics}}In some nations, Muslim ethnic groups enjoy considerable autonomy. In some places, Muslims implement Islamic law, called sharia in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in a number of variations, but the main forms are the five (four Sunni and one Shia) and Salafi and Ibadi schools of jurisprudence (fiqh){{clarify|what is the following bulletized list in aid of? What is its objective? Lebanon does not implement sharia, for example. Six forms are listed below, five are counted above|date=March 2013}}
In a number of Muslim-majority countries the law requires women to cover either their legs, shoulders and head, or the whole body apart from the face. In strictest forms, the face as well must be covered leaving just a mesh to see through. These hijab rules for dressing cause tensions, concerning particularly Muslims living in Western countries, where restrictions are considered both sexist and oppressive. Some Muslims oppose this charge, and instead declare that the media in these countries presses on women to reveal too much in order to be deemed attractive, and that this is itself sexist and oppressive. Politics{{Further|Islamic revival|Liberal movements within Islam}}During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world in contemporary history.[210] Islamism{{refimprove section|date=January 2018}}Some people in Muslim-majority countries also see Islam manifested politically as Islamism.[211] Political Islam is powerful in some Muslim-majority countries. Islamic parties in Turkey, Pakistan and Algeria have taken power at the provincial level. Some in these movements call themselves Islamists, which also sometimes describes more militant Islamic groups. The relationships between these groups (in democratic countries there is usually at least one Islamic party) and their views of democracy are complex. Some of these groups are accused of practicing Islamic terrorism. Islam-based intergovernmental organizations{{unreferenced section|date=January 2018}}{{Life in OIC}}The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is an inter-governmental organization grouping fifty-seven states. 49 are Muslim-majority countries, the others have significant Muslim minorities. The organization claims to be the collective voice of the Muslim world to safeguard the interest and ensure the progress and well-being of their peoples and those of other Muslims in the world over.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} GallerySee also
Notes1. ^{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world|title=Islamic world|authors=Marilyn R. Waldman, Malika Zeghal|year=2009|date=|accessdate=29 January 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202012901/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world#|archivedate=2 February 2017|deadurl=no|df=dmy-all}} 2. ^{{cite encyclopedia|title=Preface|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|quote=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World (OEIW) deals with all aspects of Islam—the world's second largest and fastest-growing religion—and the societies in which it exists, including their religion, politics, economics, everyday life, culture, and thought.|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-div1-15|doi-broken-date=2018-09-08}} 3. ^1 {{cite encyclopedia|author=Asma Afsaruddin|encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History (2 ed.)|editor=William H. McNeill|title=Islamic World|publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group|year=2016|quote=The Islamic world is generally defined contemporaneously as consisting of nation-states whose population contains a majority of Muslims. [...] in the contemporary era, the term Islamic world now includes not only the traditional heartlands of Islam, but also Europe and North America, both of which have sizeable minority Muslim populations|doi=10.1093/acref/9780190622718.001.0001/acref-9780190622718-e-268|doi-broken-date=2018-09-08}} 4. ^{{cite news|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/06/02/what-muslim-world/|publisher=Foreign Policy|title=What Muslim World?|author=Scott Carpenter, Soner Cagaptay|date=2 June 2009|access-date=10 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326231548/https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/06/02/what-muslim-world/#|archive-date=26 March 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 5. ^1 2 3 {{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Gavin W. |date=2005 |title=Islam, the State and Population |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6v38-ZDJYUMC&pg=PA11 |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |pages=11–14 |isbn=9781850654933 |accessdate=19 September 2017}} 6. ^{{Cite book| author=Ira M. Lapidus | title = A History of Islamic Societies | publisher = Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) | year = 2014| isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 | pages=829-834}} 7. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1035026|title=Economies of the ummah|access-date=16 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216224140/https://www.dawn.com/news/1035026#|archive-date=16 December 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 8. ^{{cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1186109/trailing-behind-muslim-states-make-thin-contribution-global-economy/|title=Muslim countries make thin contribution to global economy|date=September 22, 2016|access-date=16 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813011442/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1186109/trailing-behind-muslim-states-make-thin-contribution-global-economy/#|archive-date=13 August 2018|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 9. ^1 {{Cite news |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |title=Why Muslims are the world’s fastest-growing religious group |author=Michael Lipka & Conrad Hackett |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=6 April 2017 |accessdate=14 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823093024/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/# |archive-date=23 August 2017 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 10. ^{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-middle-east.aspx |title=Region: Middle East-North Africa |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ff0fhVql?url=http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-middle-east.aspx# |archive-date=5 April 2013 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 11. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|title=The Global Religious Landscape|last=|first=|date=December 2012|website=Pew|access-date=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924113632/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}} 12. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/focus/essay1009_southeast_asia.html|title=Oxford Islamic Studies Online|website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com|language=en|access-date=14 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320170459/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/focus/essay1009_southeast_asia.html#|archive-date=20 March 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 13. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-asia/|title=Region: Asia-Pacific|date=27 January 2011|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=13 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010061404/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-asia/#|archive-date=10 October 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 14. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/29/politics/muslims-moment-khan/index.html|title=The moment American Muslims were waiting for|last=Editor|first=Daniel Burke|website=CNN Religion|access-date=13 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312235900/http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/29/politics/muslims-moment-khan/index.html#|archive-date=12 March 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 15. ^{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-sub-saharan-africa.aspx |title=Region: Sub-Saharan Africa |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ff0gN69Z?url=http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-sub-saharan-africa.aspx# |archive-date=5 April 2013 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 16. ^{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-asia.aspx |title=Region: Asia-Pacific |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ff0f2y1q?url=http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-asia.aspx# |archive-date=5 April 2013 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 17. ^{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-europe.aspx |title=Region: Europe |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ff0h4My2?url=http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-europe.aspx# |archive-date=5 April 2013 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 18. ^{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-americas.aspx |title=Region: Americas |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=3 January 2012 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ff0hiWc5?url=http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-americas.aspx# |archive-date=5 April 2013 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 19. ^{{cite web|title=Number of Muslims ahead of Catholics, says Vatican|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/mar/31/religion|website=The Guardian|author=Tom Kington|date=31 March 2008|accessdate=17 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902042814/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/mar/31/religion#|archive-date=2 September 2013|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 20. ^{{cite web|title=Muslim Population|url=http://www.islamicpopulation.com/|publisher=IslamicPopulation.com|accessdate=17 November 2008|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ff0jFERE?url=http://www.muslimpopulation.com/index.html#|archive-date=5 April 2013|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 21. ^{{cite web|title=Field Listing Religions|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html|accessdate=17 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604221011/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html#|archive-date=4 June 2011|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 22. ^Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "islam. §7. Sektevorming". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum. 23. ^Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "Omajjaden §1. De Spaanse tak". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum. 24. ^George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, pp. 245, 250, 256–7. New York University Press, {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}. 25. ^{{cite journal | doi = 10.1086/353360 | last1 = King | first1 = David A. | year = 1983 | title = The Astronomy of the Mamluks | url = | journal = Isis | volume = 74 | issue = 4| pages = 531–555 | ref = harv }} 26. ^Medieval India, NCERT, {{ISBN|81-7450-395-1}} 27. ^Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pg 26–38 {{ISBN|0-8157-3283-X}} 28. ^{{cite book|title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=JdC90uc8PfQC |page=9 }} |accessdate=26 August 2012|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-95960-8|page=9|date=2011-03-01}} 29. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=mOquCzBX3xcC&pg=PR7&dq=golden+age+of+islam+university#v=onepage&q=golden%20age%20of%20islam%20university&f=false |title=A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam |author= George Saliba |date= July 1995|accessdate=24 October 2012|isbn=9780814780237 }} 30. ^Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 26–38 {{ISBN|0-8157-3283-X}} 31. ^Mason, Robert (1995)."New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas V 12 p.1 32. ^Mason, Robert (1995)."New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas V 12 p. 5 33. ^Mason, Robert (1995)."New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World". Muqarnas V 12 p. 7 34. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=ATkQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA543&dq=princess+parizade#v=onepage&q=princess%20parizade&f=false The Thousand and One Nights; Or, The Arabian Night's Entertainments - David Claypoole Johnston - Google Books]. Books.google.com.pk. Retrieved on 23 September 2013. 35. ^{{cite encyclopedia | last = Marzolph | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of Islam | title = Arabian Nights | year = 2007 | publisher = Brill | volume = I | location = Leiden }} 36. ^1 Grant & Clute, p. 51 37. ^L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p. 10 {{ISBN|0-87054-076-9}} 38. ^Grant & Clute, p 52 39. ^Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206072116/http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html |date=6 February 2008 }}, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). 40. ^Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615/# |date=4 April 2015 }}", pp. 95–101, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. 41. ^Muhammad b. Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufayl. [https://books.google.com/books?id=yFAR_G7HM3QC Philosophus autodidactus, sive Epistola Abi Jaafar ebn Tophail de Hai ebn Yokdhan]: in qua ostenditur, quomodo ex inferiorum contemplatione ad superiorum notitiam ratio humana ascendere possit. E Theatro Sheldoniano, excudebat Joannes Owens, 1700. 42. ^Ala-al-din abu Al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi. The Theologus autodidactus of Ibn al-Nafīs. Clarendon P., 1968 43. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=sFCuoqykV9QC&pg=PA236&dq=ibn+al+nafis+first+science+fiction+novel&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=vH-3T_KsGJG7hAfUztjoCA&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=ibn%20al%20nafis%20first%20science%20fiction%20novel&f=false Gregory Claeys (2010), The Cambridge Companion to Utopian Literature, Cambridge University Press, p. 236] 44. ^Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206072116/http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html |date=6 February 2008 }}, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). 45. ^Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication. 46. ^Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopaedia of Islam, p. 202, Rowman Altamira, {{ISBN|0-7591-0190-6}}. 47. ^Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357–77 [369]. 48. ^1 Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117163157/http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html# |date=17 January 2008 }}, The Guardian, 22 March 2003. 49. ^The Inferno. Dante Alighieri. Bickers and Son, 1874. 50. ^See Inferno (Dante); Eighth Circle (Fraud) 51. ^Miguel Asín Palacios, Julián Ribera, Real Academia Española. La Escatologia Musulmana en la Divina Comedia. E. Maestre, 1819. 52. ^See also: Miguel Asín Palacios. 53. ^I. Heullant-Donat and M.-A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction," in Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet, Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection Lettres Gothiques, Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37. 54. ^Tr. The Book of Muhammad's Ladder 55. ^Transliterated as Maometto. 56. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=YY5NAAAAYAAJ The Review]: May-Dec. 1919, Volume 1. The National Weekly Corp., 1919. p. 128. 57. ^Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626154647/http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/equalities/muslims-in-london.pdf# |date=26 June 2008 }}, pp. 14–15, Greater London Authority) 58. ^1 "Islamic Philosophy" {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/6YFDTux7u?url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/islamic-philosophy;jsessionid=B31B033F077DD5E68E09CC9D35C02105 |date=3 May 2015 }}, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1998) 59. ^Majid Fakhry (2001). Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence. Oneworld Publications. {{ISBN|1-85168-269-4}}. 60. ^{{Cite journal|first=Jones|last=Irwin|title=Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam|date=Autumn 2002|journal=The Philosopher|volume=LXXXX|issue=2}} 61. ^Russell (1994), pp. 224–62, 62. ^Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān, pp. 38–46, Brill Publishers, {{ISBN|90-04-09300-1}}. 63. ^Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufail and Léon Gauthier (1981), Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan, p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée. 64. ^Russell (1994), pp. 224–39 65. ^Russell (1994) p. 227 66. ^Russell (1994), p. 247 67. ^1 G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 222, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-820291-1}}. 68. ^{{Cite book|title=Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy|first=Muhammad|last=Kamal|year=2006|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-5271-7|pages=9, 39|oclc=224496901}} 69. ^Dr. S.R.W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3). 70. ^{{cite web |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |title=BBC News |publisher=BBC News |date=4 January 2009 |accessdate=11 April 2014 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6YFBZo7A9?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm# |archive-date=3 May 2015 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 71. ^Plofker, Kim (2009), Mathematics in India: 500 BCE–1800 CE, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 384., {{ISBN|0-691-12067-6}}. 72. ^Peter J. Lu, Harvard's Office of News and Public Affairs {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314012002/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2007/03.01/99-tiles.html |date=14 March 2007 }} 73. ^Turner, H. (1997) pp. 136–38 74. ^Arming the Periphery. Emrys Chew, 2012. p. 1823. 75. ^Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Potassium Nitrate in Arabic and Latin Sources {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226105129/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%202.htm |date=26 February 2008 }}, History of Science and Technology in Islam. 76. ^Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises In Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226104140/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%203.htm |date=26 February 2008 }}, History of Science and Technology in Islam. 77. ^Ahmad Y. al-Hassan (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, pp. 34–35. Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo. 78. ^Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36. 79. ^1 Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), pp. 1–30 [10]. 80. ^Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218171021/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm |date=18 February 2008 }} 81. ^Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), pp. 1–30. 82. ^{{cite web |url=http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his112/Notes/Gunpowder.html |title=The Gunpowder Empires |first=Charles T |last=Evans |publisher=Northern Virginia Community College |accessdate=28 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526092248/http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his112/Notes/Gunpowder.html# |archive-date=26 May 2011 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 83. ^{{cite web |url=http://wps.ablongman.com/long_brummett_cpp_11/35/9191/2353138.cw/index.html |title=The Islamic Gunpowder Empires, 1300–1650 |website=Civilization Past & Present |publisher=Pearson Education |accessdate=28 December 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724011854/http://wps.ablongman.com/long_brummett_cpp_11/35/9191/2353138.cw/index.html |archivedate=24 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }} 84. ^{{cite web|last=Unknown|url=http://warfare2.likamva.in/Moghul/Akbar/1568-Bullocks_dragging_siege-guns_up_hill_during_the_attack_on_Ranthambhor_Fort.htm|title=Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Akbar's attack on Ranthambhor Fort|date=1590–95|website=the Akbarnama}} 85. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/niall_ferguson_the_6_killer_apps_of_prosperity.html|title=The 6 killer apps of prosperity|publisher=|access-date=5 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213061645/http://www.ted.com/talks/niall_ferguson_the_6_killer_apps_of_prosperity.html#|archive-date=13 February 2014|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 86. ^{{cite book|editor1-last=Levy|editor1-first=Jacob T.|title=Colonialism and Its Legacies|date=2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Group|location=Lanham|others=(Contributors: Alfred T, Chakabarty D, Dussel E, Eze E, Hsueh V, Kohn M, Bhanu Mehta P, Muthu S, Parekh B, Pitts J, Schutte O, Souza J, Young IM) |isbn=9780739142943}} 87. ^{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world/Islamic-history-from-1683-to-the-present-reform-dependency-and-recovery|title=Islamic world}} 88. ^1 {{Cite book |last=Nawaz |first=Maajid |date=2012 |title=Radical: My Journey out of Islamist Extremism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIjms8hwoW8C |publisher=WH Allen |page=XXII–XIII |isbn=9781448131617 |accessdate=19 September 2017}} 89. ^{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZZ96SArpuc |title=Hitchens '07: Danish Muhammad Cartoons |author=Christopher Hitchens |website=Christopher Hitchens and Tim Rutten in discussion |date=2007 |accessdate=19 September 2017 |quote=21 ambassadors from Muslim – so-called "Muslim states". How do they dare to call themselves "Muslim"? In what sense is Egypt a "Muslim" country? You can't denominate a country as religious. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422013405/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZZ96SArpuc# |archive-date=22 April 2016 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} {{rp|at=4:35}} 90. ^{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/ |title=Muslim Population by Country |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=22 December 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archivedate=9 February 2011 |df=dmy }} 91. ^{{citation|url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-preface.aspx|title=Preface|work=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=6 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725164259/http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-preface.aspx#|archive-date=25 July 2013|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 92. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population|title=Executive Summary|publisher=Pew Research Center|website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|accessdate=22 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805044735/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/#|archive-date=5 August 2013|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 93. ^{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/global-christianity/total-population-percentage.php|title=Christian Population as Percentages of Total Population by Country|publisher=Pew Research Center|website=Global Christianity|accessdate=22 December 2011|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107191939/http://features.pewforum.org/global-christianity/total-population-percentage.php|archivedate=7 January 2012|df=dmy-all}} 94. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/140614/commentary-op-ed/article/turmoil-world-islam|title=Turmoil in the world of Islam|website=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=6 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715041152/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/140614/commentary-op-ed/article/turmoil-world-islam#|archive-date=15 July 2014|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 95. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/06/22/what-is-each-countrys-second-largest-religious-group/|title=What is each country's second-largest religious group?|access-date=22 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622195834/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/06/22/what-is-each-countrys-second-largest-religious-group/#|archive-date=22 June 2015|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 96. ^{{cite web |url=http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-muslim-majority.aspx |title=Muslim-Majority Countries |website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=22 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111120125729/http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-muslim-majority.aspx# |archive-date=20 November 2011 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 97. ^{{cite news|title=Islamic Countries Of The World|url=http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/islamic-countries-in-the-world.html|work=WorldAtlas|date=25 April 2017|language=en|access-date=27 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170927155512/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/islamic-countries-in-the-world.html#|archive-date=27 September 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 98. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/|title=Executive Summary|last=|first=|date=27 January 2011|website=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|accessdate=3 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810121737/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/#|archive-date=10 August 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 99. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html|title=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA Factbook|accessdate=8 December 2010|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5nDzbMmsd?url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html#|archive-date=1 February 2010|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 100. ^{{cite web | url = http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-muslim-majority.aspx | title = Muslim-Majority Countries | date = 27 January 2011 | website = The Future of the Global Muslim Population | publisher = Pew Research Center | accessdate = 5 January 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111120125729/http://pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-muslim-majority.aspx# | archive-date = 20 November 2011 | dead-url = no | df = dmy-all }} 101. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/comparison_charts/islamic_sects.htm |title=Comparison Chart of Sunni and Shia Islam |publisher=ReligionFacts |date= |accessdate=24 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429101140/http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/comparison_charts/islamic_sects.htm# |archive-date=29 April 2011 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 102. ^{{cite web |author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life |date=7 October 2009 |accessdate=24 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024200810/http://www.pewforum.org/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx# |archive-date=24 October 2012 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 103. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html|title=The World Factbook|publisher=|accessdate=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203093100/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html#|archive-date=3 February 2012|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 104. ^{{Cite web |url=http://files.preslib.az/projects/remz/pdf_en/atr_din.pdf# |title=Administrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan – Presidential Library – Religion |access-date=19 July 2015 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/616xyRI4u?url=http://files.preslib.az/projects/remz/pdf_en/atr_din.pdf# |archive-date=21 August 2011 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 105. ^John Esposito, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press 2003 106. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicweb.com/beliefs/cults/shia_population.htm|title=The population of Shia: How many Shia are there in the world?|publisher=|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729105602/http://www.islamicweb.com/beliefs/cults/shia_population.htm#|archive-date=29 July 2016|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 107. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/ALEVI.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=27 June 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423153420/http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/ALEVI.html |archivedate=23 April 2012 |df=dmy-all }} 108. ^{{cite web|url=http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/shia.html|title=Shi'a|website=ucsm.ac.uk|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110113402/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/shia.html|archivedate=10 January 2011|df=dmy-all}} 109. ^"Pew Forum on Religious & Public life". http://www.pewforum.org/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104072449/http://pewforum.org/# |date=4 January 2012 }} 110. ^{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Pakistan.pdf |title=Country Profile: Pakistan |date=February 2005 |website=Library of Congress Country Studies on Pakistan |quote=Religion: The overwhelming majority of the population (96.3 percent) is Muslim, of whom approximately 97 percent are Sunni and 3 percent Shia. |publisher=Library of Congress |accessdate=1 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050717171649/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Pakistan.pdf# |archive-date=17 July 2005 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 111. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-executive-summary/|title=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|last=|first=|date=9 August 2012|website=Pew Research Center|publisher=|access-date=26 December 2016|quote=On the other hand, in Pakistan, where 6% of the survey respondents identify as Shia, Sunni attitudes are more mixed: 50% say Shias are Muslims, while 41% say they are not.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223063505/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-executive-summary/#|archive-date=23 December 2016|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 112. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk®ionCode=sas&#pk |title=Religions: Muslim 95% (Sunni 75%, Shia 20%), other (includes Christian and Hindu) 5% |accessdate=24 August 2010 |website=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=The World Factbook on Pakistan |year=2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528170605/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk®ionCode=sas&#pk#pk |archive-date=28 May 2010 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 113. ^{{Cite book |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |editor-last=Miller |editor-first=Tracy |date=October 2009 |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=7 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214172939/http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/# |archive-date=14 December 2015 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 114. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1809?_hi=1&_pos=1 |title=Pakistan, Islam in |accessdate=29 August 2010 |website=Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies |quote=Approximately 97 percent of Pakistanis are Muslim. The majority are Sunnis following the Hanafi school of Islamic law. Between 10 and 15 percent are Shias, mostly Twelvers. |publisher=Oxford University Press |date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618023219/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1809?_hi=1&_pos=1# |archive-date=18 June 2013 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 115. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108505.htm |title=Pakistan - International Religious Freedom Report 2008 |quote=The majority of Muslims in the country are Sunni, with a Shi'a minority ranging between 10 to 20 percent. |website=United States Department of State |publisher= |accessdate=28 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828045018/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108505.htm# |archive-date=28 August 2010 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 116. ^{{cite web|url=http://newsweekpakistan.com/the-trouble-with-madrassahs/|title=THE TROUBLE WITH MADRASSAHS|access-date=11 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801154632/http://newsweekpakistan.com/the-trouble-with-madrassahs/#|archive-date=1 August 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 117. ^{{cite web|url=http://thediplomat.com/2014/05/early-warning-signs-of-shia-genocide-in-pakistan/|title=Early Warning Signs of Shia Genocide in Pakistan|access-date=11 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801165525/http://thediplomat.com/2014/05/early-warning-signs-of-shia-genocide-in-pakistan/#|archive-date=1 August 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 118. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/26/us-pakistan-attack-idUSBRE96P0NE20130726 |title=Suicide bombs kill 39 near Shi'ite mosques in Pakistan |first1=Javed |last1=Hussain |first2=Jibran |last2=Ahmad |publisher=Reuters |date=26 July 2013 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924183356/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/26/us-pakistan-attack-idUSBRE96P0NE20130726# |archive-date=24 September 2015 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 119. ^{{cite web |url=http://shianumbers.com/shia-muslims-population.html |title=Shiite Islam |publisher=Shianumbers.com |access-date=23 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305072539/http://shianumbers.com/shia-muslims-population.html# |archive-date=5 March 2016 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 120. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=-cBtatnS05EC&pg=PT112&dq=false#v=onepage&q=false&f=false Aminah Beverly McCloud, Scott W. Hibbard and Laith Saud (2013), An Introduction to Islam in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons. p. 112] 121. ^Öz, Mustafa, Mezhepler Tarihi ve Terimleri Sözlüğü (The History of madh'habs and its terminology dictionary), Ensar Publications, İstanbul, 2011. 122. ^"Muhammad ibn Āliyy’ūl Cillī aqidah" of "Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī fiqh" (Sūlaiman Affandy, Al-Bākūrat’ūs Sūlaiman’īyyah – Family tree of the Nusayri Tariqat, pp. 14–15, Beirut, 1873.) 123. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cemvakfi.org.tr/alevi-islam-din-hizmetleri-baskanligi/alevi-islam-din-hizmetleri-baskanligi/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110124358/http://www.cemvakfi.org.tr/alevi-islam-din-hizmetleri-baskanligi/alevi-islam-din-hizmetleri-baskanligi/|dead-url=yes|archive-date=10 January 2012|title=Alevi İslam Din Hizmetleri Başkanlığı|publisher=|accessdate=5 March 2015}} 124. ^{{Cite book| publisher = Edinburgh University Press| isbn = 978-0-7486-1888-0| last = Halm| first = Heinz| title = Shi'ism| date = 21 July 2004| page=154| title-link = Shi'ism}} 125. ^Alevi-Islam Religious Services – The message of İzzettin Doğan {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081230/http://www.aleviislamdinhizmetleri.com/basinda_biz.asp?id=5# |date=4 March 2016 }}, Zafer Mah. Ahmet Yesevi Cad. No: 290, Yenibosna / Istanbul, Turkey. 126. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm|title=Alawi Islam|author=John Pike|publisher=|accessdate=15 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319053833/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm#|archive-date=19 March 2015|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 127. ^{{Cite news|title=OIC to hold conference on refugees in Muslim world in Turkmenistan |url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-278419-oic-to-hold-conference-on-refugees-in-muslim-world-in-turkmenistan.html |publisher=Zaman |date=24 April 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503181729/http://www.todayszaman.com/news-278419-oic-to-hold-conference-on-refugees-in-muslim-world-in-turkmenistan.html |archivedate=3 May 2012 |df=dmy }} 128. ^{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2013/07/un-calls-syrian-refugee-crisis-worst-since-rwandan-genocide/ |title=UN Calls Syrian Refugee Crisis Worst Since Rwandan Genocide |publisher=ABC News |date=17 July 2013 |accessdate=10 August 2013}} 129. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-widows/rohingya-widows-find-safe-haven-in-bangladesh-camp-idUSKBN1E136I |title=Rohingya widows find safe haven in Bangladesh camp |date=7 December 2017 |website=Reuters |accessdate=16 January 2018}} 130. ^{{cite web|title=Egypt Literacy rate|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/Egypt/literacy-rate|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906124742/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/Egypt/literacy-rate#|archive-date=6 September 2018|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 131. ^{{cite web|title=Pakistan Literacy rate|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/pakistan/literacy-rate|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906124614/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/pakistan/literacy-rate#|archive-date=6 September 2018|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 132. ^{{cite web|title=Iran Literacy rate|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/iran/literacy-rate|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710133100/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/iran/literacy-rate#|archive-date=10 July 2018|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 133. ^{{cite web|title=Iraq Literacy rate|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/iraq/literacy-rate|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906161649/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/iraq/literacy-rate#|archive-date=6 September 2018|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 134. ^{{cite web|title=Indonesia Literacy rate|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indonesia/literacy-rate|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906161654/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indonesia/literacy-rate#|archive-date=6 September 2018|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 135. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 {{cite web |date=19 December 2011 |title=Religion and Education Around the World |url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2016/12/21094148/Religion-Education-ONLINE-FINAL.pdf |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=13 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222152619/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2016/12/21094148/Religion-Education-ONLINE-FINAL.pdf# |archive-date=22 December 2016 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 136. ^{{cite news|title=Nearly 40% of Muslim world’s population unable read or write: IINA Report|url=http://www.iinanews.com/page/public/report.aspx?id=10377#.Vm81VPkrLIU|accessdate=14 December 2015|agency=International Islamic News Agency|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120828/http://www.iinanews.com/page/public/report.aspx?id=10377#.Vm81VPkrLIU#.Vm81VPkrLIU|archive-date=22 December 2015|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 137. ^{{cite web|last1=SCI|title=Scimago Journal & Country Rank|url=http://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php|website=Scimago Journal|accessdate=1 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031091400/http://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php#|archive-date=31 October 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 138. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.science-metrix.com/30years-Paper.pdf |title=Science-Matrix: 30 Years in Science – Secular Movements in Knowledge Creation |publisher=Science-matrix.com |accessdate=24 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913172105/http://www.science-metrix.com/30years-Paper.pdf# |archive-date=13 September 2012 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 139. ^{{cite web|url=http://eml.berkeley.edu/~webfac/cromer/e211_f07/chaney.pdf|title=Economic Development, Religious Competition, and the Rise and Fall of Muslim Science|last=Chaney|first=Eric|date=October 24, 2007|publisher=eml.berkeley.edu|format=PDF|accessdate=August 3, 2016}} 140. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/2006/11/04/opinion/opinion_30018026.php|title=Islamic world faces intellectual stagnation|date=|publisher=Nationmultimedia.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828012553/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/2006/11/04/opinion/opinion_30018026.php|archivedate=2013-08-28|deadurl=yes|accessdate=2014-08-18|df=}} 141. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/post/the-economics-of-obamas-arab-spring-speech/2011/05/19/AFIh0K7G_blog.html|title=The economics of Obama's Arab Spring speech|last=Singletary|first=Michelle|date=19 May 2011|work=The Washington Post}} 142. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2002-01-27/how-the-islamic-world-lost-its-edge|title=How the Islamic World Lost Its Edge|work=Businessweek.com|accessdate=7 January 2015}} 143. ^It was constructed during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. 144. ^Ettinghausen (2003), p. 3{{Clarify|date=November 2010|reason=Need full name and work cited}} 145. ^"Islamic Art and Architecture", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000) 146. ^"Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005) 147. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=LgnhYDozENgC&pg=PA175&dq=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns&hl=fr&ei=-axbTKGaNs2aOIqI4aYP&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CFMQ6AEwBzge#v=onepage&q=mosque%20kairouan%20roman%20columns&f=false Elizabeth Allo Isichei, A history of African societies to 1870, p. 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997]. Books.google.com (13 April 1997). Retrieved on 11 May 2012. 148. ^{{cite web |title = Muslim Iconoclasm |url = http://lexicorient.com/e.o/mus_iconoclasm.htm |publisher = Encyclopedia of the Orient |accessdate = 23 February 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070314233303/http://lexicorient.com/e.o/mus_iconoclasm.htm# |archive-date = 14 March 2007 |dead-url = no |df = dmy-all}} 149. ^1 Madden (1975), pp. 423–30 150. ^Tonna, Jo (1990). "The Poetics of Arab-Islamic Architecture", Muqarnas BRILL, 7, pp. 182–97 151. ^Grabar, Oleg (2006), "Islamic art and beyond". Ashgate. Vol 2, p. 87 152. ^McAlister, Elizabeth. 2005."Globalization and the Religious Production of Space. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506002954/http://wesscholar.wesleyan.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1038&context=div2facpubs# |date=6 May 2014 }}" Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 44, No 3, September 2005., 249–255. 153. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.opendoorsusa.org/press/press-release/2012/January/Islamic-Majority-Countries-Top-Open-Doors-2012-World-Watch-List |title=Islamic-Majority Countries Top Open Doors 2012 World Watch List |publisher=Opendoorsusa.org |date=2 January 2012 |accessdate=24 October 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114071906/http://www.opendoorsusa.org/press/press-release/2012/January/Islamic-Majority-Countries-Top-Open-Doors-2012-World-Watch-List |archivedate=14 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }} 154. ^{{cite web| title =93 years pass since establishment of first democratic republic in the east – Azerbaijan Democratic Republic | publisher = Azerbaijan Press Agency| url = http://en.apa.az/news.php?id=148210| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111121170317/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id=148210| dead-url = yes| archive-date = 21 November 2011| accessdate =28 May 2011}} 155. ^{{cite book | last = Kazemzadeh | first = Firuz |authorlink=Firuz Kazemzadeh | title = The Struggle for Transcaucasia: 1917–1921 | publisher = The New York Philosophical Library | year= 1951 | isbn = 978-0-8305-0076-5 | pages = 124, 222, 229, 269–70 }} 156. ^{{cite book |last = Swietochowski |first = Tadeusz |authorlink = Tadeusz Swietochowski |title = Russian Azerbaijan, 1905–1920: The Shaping of a National Identity in a Muslim Community |url = https://books.google.nl/books?id=cozSOSsv7ZsC&pg=129#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher = Cambridge University Press |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-0-521-52245-8 |page = 129 |access-date = 17 January 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180117131539/https://books.google.nl/books?id=cozSOSsv7ZsC&pg=129#v=onepage&q&f=false#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date = 17 January 2018 |dead-url = no |df = dmy-all}} 157. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=MWEePOkKpkoC&pg=PA116&dq=false#v=onepage&q=false&f=false Helen Rose Fuchs Ebaugh (2009), The Gülen Movement: A Sociological Analysis of a Civic Movement Rooted in Moderate Islam. Springer, p. 116] 158. ^See* Esposito (2004), p. 84{{cnf|date=October 2013}}* Lapidus (2002), pp. 502–07, 845{{cnf|date=October 2013}}* Lewis (2003), p. 100{{cnf|date=October 2013}} 159. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Afghanistan_2004|title=Constitution of Afghanistan 2004|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223213703/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Afghanistan_2004#|archive-date=23 February 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 160. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/government/constitution-1.html|title=Islamic Republic of Iran Constitution|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225010032/http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/constitution-1.html#|archive-date=25 February 2008|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 161. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mauritania_2012.pdf|title=Mauritania's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2012|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504073610/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mauritania_2012.pdf#|archive-date=4 May 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 162. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Oman_2011.pdf?lang=en|title=Oman's Constitution of 1996 with Amendments through 2011|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204703/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Oman_2011.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=27 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 163. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/sa00000_.html|title=Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|access-date=6 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226203908/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/sa00000_.html#|archive-date=26 December 2011|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 164. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Yemen_2001.pdf?lang=en|title=Yemen's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2001|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127144814/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Yemen_2001.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=27 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 165. ^{{cite web|url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/local_algeria.pdf|title=Of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504073600/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/local_algeria.pdf#|archive-date=4 May 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 166. ^{{cite web|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Kingdom_of_Bahrain_(2002)#Article_2_.5BState_Religion.2C_Shari.27a.2C_Official_Language.5D|title=Constitution of the Kingdom of Bahrain (2002)|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223212553/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Kingdom_of_Bahrain_(2002)#Article_2_.5BState_Religion.2C_Shari.27a.2C_Official_Language.5D#Article_2_.5BState_Religion.2C_Shari.27a.2C_Official_Language.5D|archive-date=23 February 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 167. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bx.html |title=The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |date= |accessdate=30 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721102115/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bx.html# |archive-date=21 July 2015 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 168. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Comoros_2009.pdf|title=Comoros's Constitution of 2001 with Amendments through 2009|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504073557/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Comoros_2009.pdf#|archive-date=4 May 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 169. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Djibouti_2010.pdf?lang=en|title=Djibouti's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2010|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625074422/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Djibouti_2010.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=25 June 2016|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 170. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2014.pdf|title=Egypt's Constitution of 2014|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504073608/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2014.pdf#|archive-date=4 May 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 171. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf|title=Constitution of Iraq|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128152712/http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf|archivedate=28 November 2016|df=dmy-all}} 172. ^[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jo.html "Jordan country report"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629165359/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jo.html# |date=29 June 2011 }}, The World Factbook, U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 24 August 2012 173. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2002/14005.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report |website=US State Department |year=2002 |access-date=24 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625144637/https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2002/14005.htm# |archive-date=25 June 2017 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 174. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Libya_2012.pdf?lang=en|title=Libya's Constitution of 2011 with Amendments through 2012|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204715/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Libya_2012.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=27 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 175. ^{{Cite web |url=http://www.presidencymaldives.gov.mv/Documents/ConstitutionOfMaldives.pdf |title=Constitution of the Republic of Maldives 2008 |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519142814/http://www.presidencymaldives.gov.mv/Documents/ConstitutionOfMaldives.pdf |archive-date=19 May 2017 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }} 176. ^{{cite web|url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/malaysia.pdf|title=Constitution of Malaysia|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514094615/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/malaysia.pdf#|archive-date=14 May 2011|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 177. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Morocco_2011.pdf?lang=en|title=Morocco's Constitution of 2011|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204730/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Morocco_2011.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=27 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 178. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Qatar_2003.pdf|title=Qatar's Constitution of 2003|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127143256/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Qatar_2003.pdf#|archive-date=27 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 179. ^{{cite book|last=Janos|first=Besenyo|year=2009|title=Western Sahara|publisher=Publikon Publishers|location=Pécs|isbn=978-963-88332-0-4|url=http://www.kalasnyikov.hu/dokumentumok/besenyo_western_sahara.pdf|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107095817/http://www.kalasnyikov.hu/dokumentumok/besenyo_western_sahara.pdf#|archive-date=7 January 2016|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 180. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Somalia_2012?lang=en|title=Provisional Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204711/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Somalia_2012?lang=en#|archive-date=27 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 181. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tunisia_2014.pdf?lang=en|title=Tunisia's Constitution of 2014|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204656/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tunisia_2014.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=27 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 182. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/United_Arab_Emirates_2009.pdf?lang=en|title=United Arab Emirates's Constitution of 1971 with Amendments through 2009|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029092800/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/United_Arab_Emirates_2009.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=29 October 2016|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 183. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/|title=The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan|access-date=27 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709113418/http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/#|archive-date=9 July 2011|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 184. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Indonesia_2002.pdf?lang=en|title=Indonesia's Constitution of 1945, Reinstated in 1959, with Amendments through 2002|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127144810/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Indonesia_2002.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=27 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 185. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Syria_2012.pdf?lang=en|title=Syrian Arab Republic's Constitution of 2012|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204707/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Syria_2012.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=27 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 186. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/al00000_.html#A007_|title=Albania – Constitution|publisher=ICL|accessdate=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924115436/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/al00000_.html#A007_#A007_|archive-date=24 September 2015|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 187. ^{{Cite web |url=http://azerbaijan.az/portal/General/Constitution/doc/constitution_e.pdf# |title=Article 7.1 of Constitution |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026135534/http://azerbaijan.az/portal/General/Constitution/doc/constitution_e.pdf# |archive-date=26 October 2011 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 188. ^{{cite web|url=http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/bk00000_.html|title=Bosnia and Herzegovina – Constitution|publisher=ICL|accessdate=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003211952/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/bk00000_.html#|archive-date=3 October 2014|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 189. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20061009112408/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/Burkina%20FasoC%20%28englishsummary%29%28rev%29.doc Article 31 of Constitution] 190. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20061009114533/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/ChadC%20%28english%20summary%29%28rev%29.doc Article 1 of Constitution] 191. ^{{Cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/238430.pdf# |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504044022/https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/238430.pdf# |archive-date=4 May 2017 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all }} 192. ^Article 1 of Constitution {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040913180737/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/cafrad/unpan002994.pdf |date=13 September 2004 }} 193. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cicr.org/ihl-nat.nsf/162d151af444ded44125673e00508141/8ff8cad34667b579c1257083002a6fa8/$FILE/Constitution%20Guinea%20Bissau.doc|title=Article 1 of Constitution|access-date=2013-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105121916/http://www.cicr.org/ihl-nat.nsf/162d151af444ded44125673e00508141/8ff8cad34667b579c1257083002a6fa8/$FILE/Constitution%20Guinea%20Bissau.doc#|archive-date=5 November 2013|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 194. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.akorda.kz/en/category/konstituciya |title=Archived copy |accessdate=24 November 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924011326/http://www.akorda.kz/en/category/konstituciya |archivedate=24 September 2014 |df=dmy-all }} 195. ^Republic of Kosovo constitution {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121073327/http://www.kushtetutakosoves.info/?cid=2%2C247 |date=21 November 2013 }}, Republic of Kosovo constitution, 196. ^Article 1 of Constitution {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204064819/http://www.coe.int/T/E/Legal_Affairs/Legal_co-operation/Foreigners_and_citizens/Nationality/Documents/National_legislation/Kyrgyzstan%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Kyrghyz%20Republic.asp |date=4 February 2007 }} 197. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/171739.pdf|title=Lebanon|access-date=5 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709211333/https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/171739.pdf#|archive-date=9 July 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 198. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=238173|title=The Lebanese Constitution (as amended up to September 21, 1990)|access-date=5 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106001453/http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=238173#|archive-date=6 November 2018|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 199. ^Preamble of Constitution {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912141413/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Mali.pdf |date=12 September 2012 }} 200. ^John L. Esposito. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press US, (2004) {{ISBN|0-19-512559-2}} pp. 233–34 201. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm#Powers_of_Federal_Republic_of_Nigeria|title=Nigerian Constitution|website=Nigeria Law|accessdate=17 July 2015|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6177BmVlS?url=http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm#Powers_of_Federal_Republic_of_Nigeria#Powers_of_Federal_Republic_of_Nigeria|archive-date=21 August 2011|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 202. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/we.html|title=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506164505/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/we.html#|archive-date=6 May 2014|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 203. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90117.htm|title=Senegal|website=U.S. Department of State|accessdate=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119085137/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90117.htm#|archive-date=19 January 2012|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 204. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Sierra_Leone_2008.pdf?lang=en|title=Sierra Leone's Constitution of 1991, Reinstated in 1996, with Amendments through 2008|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030081457/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Sierra_Leone_2008.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=30 October 2016|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 205. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tajikistan_2003.pdf?lang=en|title=Tajikistan's Constitution of 1994 with Amendments through 2003|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102213123/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tajikistan_2003.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=2 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 206. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/anayasa.htm|title=Article 2 of Constitution|publisher=|accessdate=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201041755/http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/anayasa.htm|archive-date=1 December 2010|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}} 207. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.uta.edu/cpsees/TURKCON.htm|title=Constitution of Turkmenistan|publisher=|accessdate=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414030847/http://www.uta.edu/cpsees/TURKCON.htm#|archive-date=14 April 2015|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 208. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Uzbekistan_2011.pdf?lang=en|title=Uzbekistan's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2011|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204735/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Uzbekistan_2011.pdf?lang=en#|archive-date=27 January 2017|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}} 209. ^"Benazir Bhutto: Daughter of Tragedy" by Muhammad Najeeb, Hasan Zaidi, Saurabh Shulka and S. Prasannarajan, India Today, 7 January 2008 210. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20110217233807/http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1212925100226&pagename=Zone-English-ArtCulture%2FACELayout Milestones of Islamic History] 211. ^Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Arab World. By Nazih Ayub. Routledge, 19 June 2004. p. 9 References
External links{{Sister project links|m=no|mw=no|species=no|wikt=no|n=Portal:Islam|s=Portal:Islam|voy=Islam|d=Q779924|commons=Category:Islam distribution maps|q=Islam|b=Subject:Islam|v=Islam}}
5 : Islam|Cultural regions|Islamic culture|Pan-Islamism|Historical regions |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 随便看 |
|
开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。