1. Effects on Earth

2. Risk by supernova type

3. Past events

4. See also

5. Footnotes

6. References

A near-Earth supernova is an explosion resulting from the death of a star that occurs close enough to the Earth (roughly less than 10 to 300 parsecs (30 to 1000 light-years) away^[2]) to have noticeable effects on Earth's biosphere.

Historically, each near-Earth supernova explosion has been associated with a global warming of around {{Val|3|–|4|u=°C}}. An estimated 20 supernovae explosions have happened within 300 pc of the Earth over the last 11 million years. Type II supernovae explosions are expected to occur in active star-forming regions, with 12 such OB associations being located within 650 pc of the Earth. At present, there are six near-Earth supernova candidates within 300 pc.^[3]

Effects on Earth

On average, a supernova explosion occurs within {{convert|10|pc|ly|abbr=off}} of the Earth every 240 million years.{{efn|Since a radius of 100 light years contains approximately 27.8 times as much volume as one of 33 light years, a supernova should occur within a radius of 100 light years from Earth approximately once every 8.6 million years. A supernova would occur within a radius of 200 light years approximately once every million years, within 500 light years every 69,000 years, and within 1,000 light years roughly every 8,625 years.{{Original research inline|date=May 2016}}}} Gamma rays are responsible for most of the adverse effects a supernova can have on a living terrestrial planet. In Earth's case, gamma rays induce a chemical reaction in the upper atmosphere, converting molecular nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, depleting the ozone layer enough to expose the surface to harmful solar and cosmic radiation (mainly ultra-violet). Phytoplankton and reef communities would be particularly affected, which could severely deplete the base of the marine food chain.^[4][5]

Odenwald^[6] discusses the possible effects of a Betelgeuse supernova on the Earth and on human space travel, especially the effects of the stream of charged particles that would reach the Earth circa 100,000 years later than the initial light and other electromagnetic radiation produced by the explosion.

Risk by supernova type

Speculation as to the effects of a nearby supernova on Earth often focuses on large stars as Type II supernova candidates. Several prominent stars within a few hundred light years of the Sun are candidates for becoming supernovae in as little as a millennium. Although they would be spectacular to look at, were these "predictable" supernovae to occur, they are thought to have little potential to affect Earth.

It is estimated that a Type II supernova closer than eight parsecs (26 light-years) would destroy more than half of the Earth's ozone layer.^[7] Such estimates are based on atmospheric modeling and the measured radiation flux from SN 1987A, a Type II supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Estimates of the rate of supernova occurrence within 10 parsecs of the Earth vary from 0.05–0.5 per Ga^[5] to 10 per Ga.^[8] Several studies assume that supernovae are concentrated in the spiral arms of the galaxy, and that supernova explosions near the Sun usually occur during the ~10 million years that the Sun takes to pass through one of these regions.^[7] Examples of relatively near supernovae are the Vela Supernova Remnant (~800 ly, ~12,000 years ago) and Geminga (~550 ly, ~300,000 years ago).

Past events

Evidence from daughter products of short-lived radioactive isotopes shows that a nearby supernova helped determine the composition of the Solar System 4.5 billion years ago, and may even have triggered the formation of this system.^[10] Supernova production of heavy elements over astronomic periods of time ultimately made the chemistry of life on Earth possible.

Past supernovae might be detectable on Earth in the form of metal isotope signatures in rock strata. Subsequently, iron-60 enrichment has been reported in deep-sea rock of the Pacific Ocean by researchers from the Technical University of Munich.^[11][12][13] Twenty-three atoms of this iron isotope were found in the top 2 cm of crust (this layer corresponds to times from 13.4 to 0 million years ago).^[13] It is estimated that the supernova must have occurred in the last 5 million years or else it would have had to happen very close to the solar system to account for so much iron-60 still being here. A supernova occurring so close would have probably caused a mass extinction, which did not happen in that time frame.^[14] The quantity of iron seems to indicate that the supernova was less than 30 parsecs away. On the other hand, the authors estimate the frequency of supernovae at a distance less than D (for reasonably small D) as around (D/10 pc)³ per Ga, which gives a probability of only around 5% for a supernova within 30 pc in the last 5 million years. They point out that the probability may be higher because the Solar System is entering the Orion Arm of the Milky Way.

In 1998 a supernova remnant, RX J0852.0-4622, was found in front (apparently) of the larger Vela Supernova Remnant.^[16] Gamma rays from the decay of titanium-44 (half-life about 60 years) were independently discovered emanating from it,^[17] showing that it must have exploded fairly recently (perhaps around 1200 CE), but there is no historical record of it. The flux of gamma rays and x-rays indicates that the supernova was relatively close to us (perhaps 200 parsecs or 660 ly). If so, this is an unexpected event because supernovae less than 200 parsecs away are estimated to occur less than once per 100,000 years.^[13]

See also

• List of supernova candidates

Footnotes

References

• Rhynchostylis coelestis
• Rhynchostylis gigantea
• Rhynchostylis papillosa
• Rhynchostylis retusa
• Rhynchosuchus
• Rhynchota
• Rhynchotherium
• Rhynchotona
• Rhynchotropis
• Rhynchovanda
• Rhyncophanes
• Rhyncophilus
• Rhynd
• Rhyndacus Bridge
• Rhyndakos Bridge
• Rhyne Elementary School
• Rhyne Hughes
• Rhynencina
• Rhyners Record Shop
• Rhynia
• Rhyniaceae
• Rhynia gwynne-vaughanii
• Rhynia major
• Rhynie
• Rhynie, Aberdeenshire