请输入您要查询的百科知识：

　

词条 Nootropic
释义

  1. Availability and prevalence

     Use by students 

  2. Side effects

  3. Drugs

      Central nervous system stimulants {{anchor|Xanthines|Stimulants}}   Racetams  Miscellaneous 

  4. Dietary supplements

  5. Null findings in systematic reviews

  6. See also

  7. References

  8. External links

{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2018}}

Nootropics ({{IPAc-en|n|oʊ|.|ə|ˈ|t|r|ɒ|p|ᵻ|k|s}} {{respell|noh|ə|TROP|iks}}) (colloquial: smart drugs and cognitive enhancers) are drugs, supplements, and other substances that may improve cognitive function, particularly executive functions, memory, creativity, or motivation, in healthy individuals.[1] While many substances are purported to improve cognition, research is at a preliminary stage as of 2019, and the effects of the majority of these agents are not fully determined.

The use of cognition-enhancing drugs by healthy individuals in the absence of a medical indication spans numerous controversial issues, including the ethics and fairness of their use, concerns over adverse effects, and the diversion of prescription drugs for nonmedical uses, among others.[1][2] Nonetheless, the international sales of cognition-enhancing supplements has continued to grow over time, exceeding {{currency|1|US}} billion in 2015.[3]

The word nootropic was coined in 1972 by a Romanian psychologist and chemist, Corneliu E. Giurgea,[4][5] from the Greek words νοῦς (nous), or "mind", and τρέπειν (trepein), meaning to bend or turn.[6]

Availability and prevalence

In 2008, the most commonly used class of drug was stimulants, such as caffeine.[7] Manufacturers' marketing claims for dietary supplements are usually not formally tested and verified by independent entities.[8]

Use by students

The use of prescription stimulants is especially prevalent among students.[9] Surveys suggest that 0.7–4.5% of German students have used cognitive enhancers in their lifetimes.[10][11][12] Stimulants such as dimethylamylamine and methylphenidate are used on college campuses and by younger groups.[13] Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, {{nowrap|5–35%}} of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants, which are primarily used for enhancement of academic performance rather than as recreational drugs.[14][15][16] Several factors positively and negatively influence an individual's willingness to use a drug for the purpose of enhancing cognitive performance. Among them are personal characteristics, drug characteristics, and characteristics of the social context.[10][11][17][18]

Side effects

The main concern with pharmaceutical drugs is adverse effects, which also apply to nootropics with undefined effects. Long-term safety evidence is typically unavailable for nootropics.[13] Racetams — piracetam and other compounds that are structurally related to piracetam — have few serious adverse effects and low toxicity, but there is little evidence that they enhance cognition in people having no cognitive impairments.[19]

In the United States, dietary supplements may be marketed if the manufacturer can show that the supplement is generally recognized as safe, and if the manufacturer does not make any claims about using the supplement to treat or prevent any disease or condition; supplements that contain drugs or advertise health claims are illegal under US law.[20]

Drugs

Central nervous system stimulants {{anchor|Xanthines|Stimulants}}

{{See also|Yerkes–Dodson law}}Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of clinical human research using low doses of certain central nervous system stimulants found enhanced cognition in healthy people.[25][21][22] In particular, the classes of stimulants that demonstrate cognition-enhancing effects in humans act as direct agonists or indirect agonists of dopamine receptor D1, adrenoceptor A2, or both types of receptor in the prefrontal cortex.[23][21][24][25] Relatively high doses of stimulants cause cognitive deficits.[24][25]
  • Amphetamine{{snd}} systematic reviews and meta-analyses report that low-dose amphetamine improved cognitive functions (e.g., inhibitory control, episodic memory, working memory, and aspects of attention) in healthy people and in individuals with ADHD.[23][21][22][25] A 2014 systematic review noted that low doses of amphetamine also improved memory consolidation, in turn leading to improved recall of information in non-ADHD youth.[22] It also improves task saliency (motivation to perform a task) and performance on tedious tasks that required a high degree of effort.[21][24][25]
  • Methylphenidate{{snd}} a benzylpiperidine that had cognitive effects (e.g., working memory, episodic memory, and inhibitory control, aspects of attention, and planning latency) in healthy people.[23][21][22] It also may improve task saliency and performance on tedious tasks.[25] At above optimal doses, methylphenidate had off–target effects that decreased learning.[26]
  • Eugeroics (armodafinil and modafinil){{snd}} are classified as "wakefulness promoting" agents; modafinil increased alertness, particularly in sleep deprived individuals, and was noted to facilitate reasoning and problem solving in non-ADHD youth.[22] In a systematic review of small, preliminary studies where the effects of modafinil were examined, when simple psychometric assessments were considered, modafinil intake appeared to enhance executive function.[27] Modafinil does not produce improvements in mood or motivation in sleep deprived or non-sleep deprived individuals.[28]
  • Caffeine{{snd}} a meta-analysis found an increase in alertness and attentional performance.[50][24]
  • Nicotine{{snd}} a meta-analysis of 41 clinical studies concluded that nicotine or smoking caused improvements in alerting and orienting attention and episodic and working memory and slightly improved fine motor performance.[29]

Racetams

{{Main|Racetams}}

Racetams, such as piracetam, oxiracetam,phenylpiracetam, and aniracetam, which are often marketed as cognitive enhancers and sold over-the-counter. Racetams are often referred to as nootropics, but this property is not well established.[30] The racetams have poorly understood mechanisms, although piracetam and aniracetam are known to act as positive allosteric modulators of AMPA receptors and appear to modulate cholinergic systems.[31]

According to the US Food and Drug Administration,

"Piracetam is not a vitamin, mineral, amino acid, herb or other botanical, or dietary substance for use by humans to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake. Further, piracetam is not a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract or combination of any such dietary ingredient. [...] Accordingly, these products are drugs, under section 201(g)(1)(C) of the Act, 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(C), because they are not foods and they are intended to affect the structure or any function of the body. Moreover, these products are new drugs as defined by section 201(p) of the Act, 21 U.S.C. § 321(p), because they are not generally recognized as safe and effective for use under the conditions prescribed, recommended, or suggested in their labeling."[32]

Miscellaneous

  • {{smallcaps all|L}}-Theanine{{snd}} A 2014 systematic review and meta-analysis found that concurrent caffeine and {{smallcaps all|L}}-theanine use had synergistic psychoactive effects that promoted alertness, attention, and task switching;[50] these effects were most pronounced during the first hour post-dose.[33] However, the European Food Safety Authority reported that, when L-theanine is used by itself (i.e. without caffeine), there is insufficient information to determine if these effects exist.[34]
  • Tolcapone{{snd}} a systematic review noted that it improved verbal episodic memory and episodic memory encoding.[35]
  • Levodopa{{snd}} a systematic review noted that it improved verbal episodic memory and episodic memory encoding.[35]
  • Atomoxetine{{snd}} may improve working memory and attention when used at certain doses.[25]

Dietary supplements

  • Panax ginseng{{snd}} A review by the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that "there is a lack of convincing evidence to show a cognitive enhancing effect of Panax ginseng in healthy participants and no high quality evidence about its efficacy in patients with dementia."[36] According to the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, "[a]lthough Asian ginseng has been widely studied for a variety of uses, research results to date do not conclusively support health claims associated with the herb."[37]
  • Ginkgo biloba{{snd}} An extract of Ginkgo biloba leaf is marketed in dietary supplement form with claims it can enhance cognitive function in people without known cognitive problems, although there is no high-quality evidence to support such effects on memory or attention in healthy people.[38][39]
  • Salvia officinalis (sage) {{snd}} Some research has suggested certain extracts of Salvia officinalis may have positive effects on human brain function, but due to significant methodological problems, no firm conclusions can be drawn.[40][41] The thujone present in Salvia extracts may be neurotoxic.[41]

Null findings in systematic reviews

  • Omega-3 fatty acids: DHA and EPA{{snd}} two Cochrane Collaboration reviews on the use of supplemental omega-3 fatty acids for ADHD and learning disorders conclude that there is limited evidence of treatment benefits for either disorder.[42][43] Two other systematic reviews noted no cognition-enhancing effects in the general population or middle-aged and older adults.[44][72]
  • Folate{{snd}} no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults.[45]
  • Vitamin B6{{snd}} no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults.[45]
  • Vitamin B12{{snd}} no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults.[45]
  • Vitamin E{{snd}} no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults.[45]
  • Pramipexole{{snd}} no significant cognition-enhancing effects in healthy individuals.[35]
  • Guanfacine{{snd}} no significant cognition-enhancing effects in healthy individuals.[35]
  • Clonidine{{snd}} no significant cognition-enhancing effects in healthy individuals.[35]
  • Fexofenadine{{snd}} no significant cognition-enhancing effects in healthy individuals.[35]

See also

  • Cognitive science
  • Human enhancement
  • List of drugs used by militaries
  • {{sectionlink|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise|Persistent effects on cognition}}
  • {{sectionlink|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise|Transient effects on cognition}}
  • Neuroenhancement
  • Contentment
  • Neuroplastic effects of pollution

References

1. ^1 {{cite journal | vauthors = Frati P, Kyriakou C, Del Rio A, Marinelli E, Vergallo GM, Zaami S, Busardò FP | title = Smart drugs and synthetic androgens for cognitive and physical enhancement: revolving doors of cosmetic neurology | journal = Curr Neuropharmacol | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–11 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 26074739 | pmc = 4462043 | doi = 10.2174/1570159X13666141210221750 }}
2. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Albertson TE, Chenoweth JA, Colby DK, Sutter ME | title = The Changing Drug Culture: Use and Misuse of Cognition-Enhancing Drugs | journal = FP Essent | volume = 441 | issue = | pages = 25–9 | year = 2016 | pmid = 26881770 | doi = | url = }}
3. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Chinthapalli K | title = The billion dollar business of being smart | journal = BMJ | volume = 351 | issue = | pages = h4829 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26370589 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.h4829 }}
4. ^{{Cite book|author=Gazzaniga, Michael S. |title=The Ethical Brain: The Science of Our Moral Dilemmas (P.S.) |publisher=Harper Perennial |location=New York, N.Y |year=2006 |page=184 |isbn=978-0-06-088473-4 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}
5. ^{{Cite journal|author=Giurgea C |title=[Pharmacology of integrative activity of the brain. Attempt at nootropic concept in psychopharmacology] ("Vers une pharmacologie de l'active integrative du cerveau: Tentative du concept nootrope en psychopharmacologie") |language=French |journal=Actual Pharmacol (Paris) |volume=25 |issue= |pages=115–56 |year=1972 |pmid=4541214 |doi= |url=}}
6. ^{{Cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/nootropic|title=nootropic {{!}} Definition of nootropic in English by Oxford Dictionaries|website=Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English|access-date=2018-07-19}}
7. ^{{cite journal |title=Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy |journal=Nature |date=December 10, 2008 |issn=1476-4687 |oclc=01586310 |bibcode = 2008Natur.456..702G |doi=10.1038/456702a |pages=702–705 |volume=456 |issue=7223 |first1=Henry |last1=Greely |first2=Barbara |last2=Sahakian |first3=John |last3=Harris |first4=Ronald C. |last4=Kessler |first5=Michael |last5=Gazzaniga |first6=Philip |last6=Campbell |first7=Martha J. |last7=Farah |pmid=19060880}}
8. ^{{cite web|title=Dietary Supplements: What You Need to Know|url=http://www.fda.gov/Food/DietarySupplements/UsingDietarySupplements/ucm109760.htm|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|accessdate=February 14, 2015}}
9. ^{{cite journal|last=McCabe|first=Sean Esteban|author2=Knight, John R. |author3=Teter, Christian J. |author4= Wechsler, Henry |title=Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey|journal=Addiction|date=January 1, 2005|volume=100|issue=1|pages=96–106|doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00944.x|pmid=15598197}}
10. ^1 {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0068821| title = The Rationale for Consuming Cognitive Enhancement Drugs in University Students and Teachers| journal = PLoS ONE| volume = 8| issue = 7| pages = e68821| year = 2013| last1 = Sattler | first1 = S. | last2 = Sauer | first2 = C. | last3 = Mehlkop | first3 = G. | last4 = Graeff | first4 = P. | pmid=23874778 | pmc=3714277| bibcode = 2013PLoSO...868821S}}
11. ^1 {{cite journal |title=Cognitive Test Anxiety and Cognitive Enhancement: The Influence of Students' Worries on Their Use of Performance-Enhancing Drugs |journal=Substance Use & Misuse |volume = 48 |number = 3 |pages=220–232 |date=February 25, 2013 |doi=10.3109/10826084.2012.751426 |pmid = 23302063|first1=Sebastian |last1=Sattler |first2=Constantin |last2=Wiegel}}
12. ^{{cite web|last1=Bossaer |first1=John |title=The Use and Misuse of Prescription Stimulants as "Cognitive Enhancers" by Students at One Academic Health Sciences Center |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/807645 |publisher=Academic Medicine |accessdate=October 6, 2014|deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150410125100/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/807645 |archivedate=April 10, 2015 }}
13. ^1 {{Cite journal|author1=Sahakian B|author1-link=Barbara Sahakian|author2=Morein-Zamir S |title=Professor's little helper |journal=Nature |volume=450 |issue=7173 |pages=1157–9 |date=December 2007 |pmid=18097378 |doi=10.1038/4501157a |url=|bibcode = 2007Natur.450.1157S }}
14. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Teter CJ, McCabe SE, LaGrange K, Cranford JA, Boyd CJ | title = Illicit use of specific prescription stimulants among college students: prevalence, motives, and routes of administration | journal = Pharmacotherapy | volume = 26 | issue = 10 | pages = 1501–1510 |date=October 2006 | pmid = 16999660 | pmc = 1794223 | doi = 10.1592/phco.26.10.1501 }}
15. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Weyandt LL, Oster DR, Marraccini ME, Gudmundsdottir BG, Munro BA, Zavras BM, Kuhar B | title = Pharmacological interventions for adolescents and adults with ADHD: stimulant and nonstimulant medications and misuse of prescription stimulants | journal = Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. | volume = 7 | issue = | pages = 223–249 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25228824 | pmc = 4164338 | doi = 10.2147/PRBM.S47013 }}
16. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Clemow DB, Walker DJ | title = The potential for misuse and abuse of medications in ADHD: a review | journal = Postgrad. Med. | volume = 126 | issue = 5 | pages = 64–81 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25295651 | doi = 10.3810/pgm.2014.09.2801 }}
17. ^{{cite journal |title=Evaluating the drivers of and obstacles to the willingness to use cognitive enhancement drugs: the influence of drug characteristics, social environment, and personal characteristics |date=February 1, 2014 |issn=1747-597X |doi=10.1186/1747-597X-9-8 |pmid=24484640 |pmc=3928621 |issue=1 |volume=9 |page=8 |journal=Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy |first1=Sebastian |last1=Sattler |first2=Guido |last2=Mehlkop |first3=Peter |last3=Graeff |first4=Carsten |last4=Sauer}}
18. ^{{cite journal |title=Impact of Contextual Factors and Substance Characteristics on Perspectives toward Cognitive Enhancement |date=August 5, 2013 |issn=1932-6203 |oclc=228234657 |journal=PLOS ONE |lccn=2006214532 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0071452 |issue=8 |volume=8 |page=e71452 |first1=Sebastian |last1=Sattler |first2=Cynthia |last2=Forlini |first3=Éric |last3=Racine |first4=Carsten |last4=Sauer |pmid=23940757 |pmc=3733969|bibcode=2013PLoSO...871452S }}
19. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Malykh AG, Sadaie MR | title = Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders | journal = Drugs | volume = 70 | issue = 3 | pages = 287–312 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20166767 | doi = 10.2165/11319230-000000000-00000 | url = }}
20. ^{{Cite journal|author=Goldman P |title=Herbal medicines today and the roots of modern pharmacology |journal=Annals of Internal Medicine |volume=135 |issue=8 Pt 1 |pages=594–600 |year=2001 |pmid=11601931 |doi=10.7326/0003-4819-135-8_Part_1-200110160-00010}}
21. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite journal | vauthors = Ilieva IP, Hook CJ, Farah MJ | title = Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis | journal = J. Cogn. Neurosci. | volume = 27| issue = 6| pages = 1069–89 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25591060 | doi = 10.1162/jocn_a_00776 | url = https://repository.upenn.edu/neuroethics_pubs/130 }}
22. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite journal | vauthors = Bagot KS, Kaminer Y | title = Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: a systematic review | journal = Addiction | volume = 109 | issue = 4 | pages = 547–557 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24749160 | doi = 10.1111/add.12460 | pmc=4471173}}
23. ^1 2 3 {{cite journal | vauthors = Spencer RC, Devilbiss DM, Berridge CW | title = The Cognition-Enhancing Effects of Psychostimulants Involve Direct Action in the Prefrontal Cortex | journal = Biol. Psychiatry | volume = 77 | issue = 11 | pages = 940–950 | year = June 2015 | pmid = 25499957 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.09.013 | pmc=4377121}}
24. ^1 2 3 {{cite journal |vauthors=Wood S, Sage JR, Shuman T, Anagnostaras SG |title=Psychostimulants and cognition: a continuum of behavioral and cognitive activation |journal=Pharmacol. Rev. |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=193–221 |date=January 2014 |pmid=24344115 |doi=10.1124/pr.112.007054 |pmc=3880463}}
25. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite book | vauthors = Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2015 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 9780071827706 | edition = 3rd | chapter = Chapter 14: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control}}
26. ^{{cite journal|last1=Urban|first1=KR|last2=Gao|first2=WJ|title=Performance enhancement at the cost of potential brain plasticity: neural ramifications of nootropic drugs in the healthy developing brain.|journal=Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience|date=2014|volume=8|page=38|pmid=24860437|doi=10.3389/fnsys.2014.00038|pmc=4026746}}
27. ^{{Cite journal|last=Battleday|first=R.M.|last2=Brem|first2=A.-K.|date=November 2015|title=Modafinil for cognitive neuroenhancement in healthy non-sleep-deprived subjects: A systematic review|journal=European Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=25|issue=11|pages=1865–1881|doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.07.028|pmid=26381811|issn=0924-977X|url=https://www.modafinil.com/review.pdf}}
28. ^{{cite book |last1=Meulen |first1=Ruud ter |last2=Hall |first2=Wayne |last3=Mohammed |first3=Ahmed |title=Rethinking Cognitive Enhancement |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198727392 |page=116 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aAIXDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |language=en}}
29. ^{{cite journal |title=Meta-analysis of the acute effects of nicotine and smoking on human performance |vauthors=Heishman SJ, Kleykamp BA, Singleton EG |journal=Psychopharmacology |volume=210 |issue=4 |pages=453–69 |date=June 2010 |pmid=20414766 |pmc=3151730 |doi=10.1007/s00213-010-1848-1}}
30. ^{{cite book |vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE |veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2009 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 9780071481274 | page = 454 | edition = 2nd }}
31. ^{{Cite journal|vauthors=Gualtieri F, Manetti D, Romanelli MN, Ghelardini C |title=Design and study of piracetam-like nootropics, controversial members of the problematic class of cognition-enhancing drugs |journal=Curr. Pharm. Des. |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=125–38 |year=2002 |pmid=11812254 |doi=10.2174/1381612023396582 |url=}}
32. ^{{Cite web|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112004501/http://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2010/ucm225605.htm|title=Warning Letters – Unlimited Nutrition 8/30/10|last=|first=|date=|website=www.fda.gov|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=April 5, 2016}}
33. ^1 2 {{cite journal | vauthors = Camfield DA, Stough C, Farrimond J, Scholey AB | title = Acute effects of tea constituents L-theanine, caffeine, and epigallocatechin gallate on cognitive function and mood: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Nutr. Rev. | volume = 72 | issue = 8 | pages = 507–22 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24946991 | doi = 10.1111/nure.12120 | url = }}
34. ^{{cite journal|journal=EFSA Journal|year=2011|volume=9|issue=6|pages=2238|author=EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies; European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy |title=Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to L-theanine from Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (tea) and improvement of cognitive function (ID 1104, 1222, 1600, 1601, 1707, 1935, 2004, 2005), alleviation of psychological stress (ID 1598, 1601), maintenance of normal sleep (ID 1222, 1737, 2004) and reduction of menstrual discomfort (ID 1599) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006|doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2238}}
35. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite journal | vauthors = Fond G, Micoulaud-Franchi JA, Brunel L, Macgregor A, Miot S, Lopez R, Richieri R, Abbar M, Lancon C, Repantis D | title = Innovative mechanisms of action for pharmaceutical cognitive enhancement: A systematic review | journal = Psychiatry Res | volume = 229 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 12–20 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26187342 | doi = 10.1016/j.psychres.2015.07.006 }}
36. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Geng J, Dong J, Ni H, Lee MS, Wu T, Jiang K, Wang G, Zhou AL, Malouf R |title=Ginseng for cognition |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=12 |pages=CD007769 |year=2010 |pmid=21154383 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007769.pub2 |url=}}
37. ^{{cite web |url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/asianginseng/ataglance.htm |title=Asian Ginseng|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health|date=September 2016 |accessdate=9 July 2018}}
38. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Laws KR, Sweetnam H, Kondel TK |title=Is Ginkgo biloba a cognitive enhancer in healthy individuals? A meta-analysis |journal=Hum Psychopharmacol |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=527–33 |date=November 2012 |pmid=23001963 |doi=10.1002/hup.2259}}
39. ^{{cite web|url=http://nccih.nih.gov/health/ginkgo/ataglance.htm|date=September 2016|title=Ginkgo|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health|accessdate=9 July 2018}}
40. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Miroddi M, Navarra M, Quattropani MC, Calapai F, Gangemi S, Calapai G |title=Systematic review of clinical trials assessing pharmacological properties of Salvia species on memory, cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease |journal=CNS Neurosci Ther |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=485–95 |year=2014 |pmid=24836739 |doi=10.1111/cns.12270 |url=}}
41. ^1 {{cite journal |vauthors=Lopresti AL |title=Salvia (Sage): A Review of its Potential Cognitive-Enhancing and Protective Effects |journal=Drugs in R&D |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=53–64 |year=2017 |pmid=27888449 |pmc=5318325 |doi=10.1007/s40268-016-0157-5 |url=}}
42. ^{{cite journal |author1=Gillies D |author2=Sinn JKh |author3=Lad SS |author4=Leach MJ |author5=Ross MJ | title = Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = 7 | issue = 7| pages = CD007986 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22786509 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007986.pub2 | url = }}
43. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Tan ML, Ho JJ, Teh KH | title = Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) for children with specific learning disorders | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = 12 | issue = | pages = CD009398 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23235675 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009398.pub2 | url = }}
44. ^{{cite journal | vauthors = Cooper RE, Tye C, Kuntsi J, Vassos E, Asherson P | title = Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford) | volume = 29 | issue = 7 | pages = 753–63 | year = 2015 | pmid = 26040902 | doi = 10.1177/0269881115587958 | url = }}
45. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite journal | vauthors = Forbes SC, Holroyd-Leduc JM, Poulin MJ, Hogan DB | title = Effect of Nutrients, Dietary Supplements and Vitamins on Cognition: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | journal = Can Geriatr J | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 231–45 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26740832 | pmc = 4696451 | doi = 10.5770/cgj.18.189 }}

External links

  • {{Commonscat-inline|Nootropics}}
{{Nootropics}}{{Major Drug Groups}}{{Authority control}}{{portal bar|Medicine|Pharmacy|Neuroscience|Psychology}}

3 : Amphetamine|Nootropics|Words coined in the 1970s
随便看

　

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。

　

Copyright © 2023 OENC.NET All Rights Reserved
京ICP备2021023879号 更新时间：2024/11/18 17:12:54