请输入您要查询的百科知识：

　

词条 Official language
释义

  1. History

  2. Statistics

  3. Political alternatives

  4. In specific countries/territories

     Afghanistan   Belarus   Canada  Finland  Germany  Hong Kong  India  Israel  Latvia  New Zealand  Norway  Pakistan  Russia  South Africa   Switzerland   Taiwan  Ukraine  United Kingdom  United States  Yugoslavia 

  5. See also

  6. References

  7. Further reading

  8. External links

An official language is a language given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically a country's official language refers to the language used in government (judiciary, legislature, administration).[1] The term "official language" does not typically refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government, [2] as "the means of expression of a people cannot be changed by any law",[3]

About half the countries of the world have declared one or more official languages. The government of Italy officialised Italian only in 1999,[4] and some nations (such as the United States) have never declared official languages at the national level.[5] Other nations have declared non-indigenous official languages. "The Philippines and parts of Africa live with a peculiar cultural paradox. Although the official languages [in Africa] may be French or English, these are not the languages most widely spoken by [the country's] residents."[6]

Worldwide, 178 countries have at least one official language, and 101 of these countries recognise more than one language. Many of the world's constitutions mention one or more official or national languages.[7][8] Some countries use the official language designation to empower indigenous groups by giving them access to the government in their native languages. In countries that do not formally designate an official language, a de facto national language usually evolves. English is the most common official language, with recognized status in 51 countries. Arabic, French, and Spanish are also widely recognized.

An official language that is also an indigenous language is called endoglossic, one that is not indigenous is exoglossic.[9] An instance is Nigeria which has three endoglossic official languages. By this the country aims to protect the indigenous languages although at the same time recognising the English language as its lingua franca.

History

Around 500 BC, when Darius the Great annexed Mesopotamia to the Persian Empire, he chose a form of the Aramaic language (the so-called Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic) as the vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} Aramaic script was widely employed from Egypt in the southwest to Bactria and Sogdiana in the northeast. Texts were dictated in the native dialects and written down in Aramaic, and then read out again in the native language at the places they were received.[10]

The First Emperor of Qin standardized the written language of China after unifying the country in 221 BC.[11] Classical Chinese would remain the standard written language for the next 2000 years. Standardization of the spoken language received less political attention, and Mandarin developed on an ad hoc basis from the dialects of the various imperial capitals until being officially standardized in the early twentieth century.

Statistics

According to an undated chart by the American pro-English-only organization known as U.S. English, 178 countries have an official language at the national level. Among those, English is the most common with 67 nations giving it official status. French is second with 29 countries, Arabic is third with 26 countries and Spanish is fourth with 19 countries, Portuguese is the official language of 9 countries and German is official in 6. Some countries—like Australia, United Kingdom and the United States—have no official language recognized as such at national level. On the other extreme, Bolivia officially recognizes 37 languages, the most by any country in the world. Second to Bolivia is India with 23 official languages. South Africa is the country with the most official languages, all at equal status to one another[12], in the world. As Bolivia gives primacy to Spanish and India gives primacy to Hindi.[13]

Political alternatives

{{see also|List of multilingual countries and regions}}

The selection of an official language (or no official language) is often contentious.[14] An alternative to having a single official language is "official multilingualism", where a government recognizes multiple official languages. Under this system, all government services are available in all official languages. Each citizen may choose their preferred language when conducting business. Most countries are multilingual[12] and many are officially multilingual. Taiwan, Canada, Philippines, Belgium, Switzerland, and the European Union are examples of official multilingualism. This has been described as controversial and, in some other areas where it has been proposed, the idea has been rejected.[14] It has also been described as necessary for the recognition of different groups[13] or as an advantage for the country in presenting itself to outsiders.[14]

In specific countries/territories

Afghanistan

{{Main|Languages of Afghanistan}}

In accordance with Chapter 1, Article 16 of the Constitution of Afghanistan, the Afghan government gives equal status to Pashto and Dari as official languages.

Belarus

{{Main| Belarusian language#History | l1=Belarusian since 1991}}

Belarusian and Russian have official status in the Republic of Belarus.

Canada

{{Main|Official bilingualism in Canada}}

In accordance with the Constitution Act, 1982 the (federal) Government of Canada gives equal status to English and French as official languages. The Province of New Brunswick is also officially bilingual, as is the Yukon. Nunavut has four official languages. The Northwest Territories has eleven official languages. All provinces, however, offer some necessary services in both English and French.

Canadian advocates{{which?|date=November 2017}} of a single official language say it promotes national identity.[15] In Canada, debate has focused on whether the local majority language should be made the exclusive language of public business. In the Canadian province of Quebec, for example, laws restrict the use of the minority English in education, on signs, and in the workplace.[14]

Finland

According to the Finnish constitution, Finnish and Swedish are the official languages of the republic. Citizens have the right to communicate in either language with government agencies.

Germany

{{Main|Languages of Germany}}

German is the official language of Germany. However, its minority languages include Sorbian (Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian), Romani, Danish and North Frisian, which are officially recognised. Migrant languages like Turkish, Russian and Spanish are widespread, but are not officially recognised languages.

Hong Kong

{{Main|Languages of Hong Kong|}}Hong Kong has two official languages: English and Chinese. Hong Kong Cantonese is used in daily conversation and Traditional Chinese used to be the common Chinese writing system in Hong Kong. English is considered as second language of most of the Hong Kongers. Since 1997 handover, Hong Kong's written official spoken Chinese language are Cantonese and Mandarin, with spoken Chinese language are simplified and traditional. China's official language is Mandarin and Simplified Chinese which is used as the standard writing system. As time goes by, signage in simplified characters has gained some popularity in a few areas. Some Hong Kong companies may have changed the characters of the signs whilst nearly all Hong Kong people continue to use traditional characters.[16]

India

{{Main|Languages of India|}}

The Constitution of India (part 17) designates the official language of the Government of India as English as well as Standard Hindi written in the Devanagari script.[17]{{qn|date=November 2017}}

The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution lists 22 languages,[18] which have been referred to as scheduled languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of classical language to Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam and Odia.

Israel

{{Main|Languages of Israel|}}

On 19 July 2018, the Knesset passed a basic law under the title Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People, which defines Hebrew as "the State's language" and Arabic as a language with "a special status in the State" (article 4). The law further says that it should not be interpreted as compromising the status of the Arabic language in practice prior to the enactment of the basic law, namely, it preserves the status quo and changes the status of Hebrew and Arabic only nominally.[19]

Before the enactment of the aforementioned basic law, the status of official language in Israel was determined by the 82nd paragraph of the "Palestine Order in Council" issued on [https://web.archive.org/web/20081221030238/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/361eea1cc08301c485256cf600606959/c7aae196f41aa055052565f50054e656!OpenDocument 14 August 1922], for the British Mandate of Palestine, as amended in 1939:[20]

All Ordinances, official notices and official forms of the Government and all official notices of local authorities and municipalities in areas to be prescribed by order of the High Commissioner, shall be published in English, Arabic, and Hebrew."

This law, like most other laws of the British Mandate, was adopted in the State of Israel, subject to certain amendments published by the provisional legislative branch on 19 May 1948. The amendment states that:

"Any provision in the law requiring the use of the English language is repealed."[21]

In most public schools, the main teaching language is Hebrew, English is taught as a second language, and most students learn a third language, usually Arabic but not necessarily. Other public schools have Arabic as their main teaching language, and they teach Hebrew as a second language and English as a third one. There are also bilingual schools which aim to teach in both Hebrew and Arabic equally.

Some languages other than Hebrew and Arabic, such as English, Russian, Amharic, Yiddish and Ladino enjoy a somewhat special status, but are not considered{{by whom?|date=November 2017}} to be official languages. For instance, at least 5% of the broadcasting time of privately owned TV-channels must be translated into Russian (a similar privilege is granted to Arabic), warnings must be translated to several languages, signs are mostly trilingual (Hebrew, Arabic and English), and the government supports Yiddish and Ladino culture (alongside Hebrew culture and Arabic culture).

Latvia

The Constitution of Latvia (or Satversme) designated Latvian as the state language. In 2012 there was initiative to hold a referendum on constitutional amendments, elevating Russian as a state language. Kristīne Jarinovska in her analysis describes the proposal in the following way:

It proposed several constitutional amendments for introducing Russian as Latvia's second official language—i.e., amendments to the Satversme’s Articles 4 (on Latvian as the state language), 18 (on the solemn promise of a member of Parliament to strengthen the Latvian language), 21 (on Latvian as the working language of the Parliament), 101 (on Latvian as the working language of local governments), and 104 (on the right to receive a reply to a petition in Latvian). Obviously, the proposed amendments would have influenced other constitutional norms as well. Moreover, since Article 4 of the Satversme alike norms of independence, democracy, sovereignty, territorial wholeness, and basic principles of elections that form the core of the Satversme (according to Article 77 of the Satversme), the initiative, in fact, proposed discontinuing an existing state and establishing a new one that is no longer a nation-state wherein Latvians exercise their rights to self-determination, enjoying and maintaining their cultural uniqueness[22]

New Zealand

New Zealand has three official languages. English is the de facto and principal official language, accepted in all situations. The Māori language and New Zealand Sign Language both have limited de jure official status under the Māori Language Act 1987 and New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006[23][24]

Norway

{{Main|Languages of Norway|Norwegian language conflict}}

Pakistan

{{Main|Languages of Pakistan}}

Urdu is the national language of Pakistan. Urdu and English both are official languages in Pakistan. Pakistan has more than 60 other languages

Russia

{{Main|Languages of Russia}}

Russian is the official language of the Russian Federation and in all federal subjects, however many minority languages have official status in the areas where they are indigenous. One type of federal subject in Russia,

republics, are allowed to adopt additional official languages alongside Russian in their own constitutions. Republics are often based around particular native ethnic groups, and are often areas where ethnic Russians and native Russian-language speakers are a minority.

South Africa

{{Main|Languages of South Africa}}South Africa has eleven official languages[25] that are mostly indigenous. Due to limited funding, however, the government rarely produces documents in most of the languages. Accusations of mismanagement and corruption have been leveled[26] against the Pan South African Language Board, which is in charge of maintaining the system.[27]

Switzerland

{{Main|Languages of Switzerland}}

The four national languages of Switzerland are German, French, Italian and Romansh. At the federal level German, French and Italian are official languages, the official languages of individual cantons depend on the languages spoken in them.

Taiwan

Standard Chinese is the de facto official language of Taiwan. Note that Standard Chinese spoken in Taiwan is slightly different from that in Mainland China, and variant forms of the former are called Taiwanese Mandarin, locally known as 國語. The Hakka Basic Act[28] and the Indigenous Languages Development Act[29] have recognized the Formosan languages and Taiwanese Hakka (variant forms of Hakka Chinese) as national languages of Taiwan.

Ukraine

{{POV|section|date=December 2018}}

In 2012 debate over adopting Russian as a regional language in Ukraine caused "an all-out brawl in Parliament", protests, and the resignation of a lawmaker in attempt to block the bill.[30]

United Kingdom

{{See also|Languages of the United Kingdom}}

The de facto official language of the United Kingdom is English.

In Wales, the Welsh language, spoken by approximately 20% of the population, has limited de jure official status.[31][32].

United States

{{See also|Languages of the United States}}

English is the de facto national language of the United States. While there is no official language at the federal level, 32 of the 50 U.S. states[33] and all six inhabited U.S. territories have designated English as one, or the only, official language, while courts have found that residents in the 50 states do not have a right to government services in their preferred language.[39] Public debate in the last few decades has focused on whether Spanish should be recognized by the government, or whether all business should be done in English.[34]

California allows people to take their driving test in the following 32 languages: Amharic, Arabic, Armenian, Chinese, Croatian, English, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hindi, Hmong, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Khmer, Korean, Laotian, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Punjabi, Romanian, Russian, Samoan, Spanish, Tagalog/Filipino, Thai, Tongan, Turkish, and Vietnamese.[35]

New York state provides voter-registration forms in the following five languages: Bengali, Chinese, English, Korean and Spanish. The same languages are also on ballot papers in certain parts of the state (namely, New York City).

[36]{{See also|English-only movement}}

The pro-English-only website U.S. English sees a multilingual government as one in which its "services actually encourage the growth of linguistic enclaves...[and] contributes to racial and ethnic conflicts".[37] Opponents of an official language policy in the United States argue that it would hamper "the government's ability to reach out, communicate, and warn people in the event of a natural or man-made disaster such as a hurricane, pandemic, or...another terrorist attack".[38] Professor of politics Alan Patten argues that disengagement (officially ignoring the issue) works well in religious issues but that it is not possible with language issues because it must offer public services in some language. Even if it makes a conscious effort not to establish an official language, a de facto official language, or the "national language", will nevertheless emerge.[34] Indeed, two-thirds of Americans believe that English is the United States' official language.[39]

Yugoslavia

Sometimes an official language definition can be motivated more by national identity than by linguistic concerns. When Yugoslavia dissolved in 1991, the country had four official languages—Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Albanian and Macedonian. Serbo-Croatian was used as a lingua franca for mutual understanding and was also the language of the military.

When Croatia declared independence (1991) it defined its official language as Croatian, and Serbia likewise defined{{when?|date=November 2017}} its official language as Serbian. Bosnia-Herzegovina defined three official languages: Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian. From the linguistic point of view, the different names refer to national varieties of the same language, which is known under the appellation of Serbo-Croatian.[40][41][42] It is said by some{{by whom|date=May 2018}} that the Bosnian government chose to define three languages to reinforce ethnic differences and keep the country divided.[43]

The language used in Montenegro, traditionally considered a dialect of Serbian, became standardized as the Montenegrin language upon Montenegro's declaration (2006) of independence.

See also

  • List of official languages by state
  • List of official languages by institution
  • List of languages without official status
  • Language policy
  • Medium of instruction
  • Minority language
  • National language
  • Official script
  • Working language

References

1. ^"Official Language", Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language, Ed. Tom McArthur, Oxford University Press, 1998.
2. ^Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior, 92 D.P.R. 596 (1965). Translation taken from the English text, 92 P.R.R. 580 (1965), p. 588-589. See also LOPEZ-BARALT NEGRON, "Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior: Español: Idioma del proceso judicial", 36 Revista Juridica de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. 396 (1967), and VIENTOS-GASTON, "Informe del Procurador General sobre el idioma", 36 Rev. Col. Ab. (P.R.) 843 (1975).
3. ^The Status of Languages in Puerto Rico. Luis Muñiz-Arguelles. University of Puerto Rico. 1986. Page 466. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
4. ^{{cite web|title=Legge 15 Dicembre 1999, n. 482 "Norme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche" pubblicata nella Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 297 del 20 dicembre 1999|url=http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm|publisher=Italian Parliament|accessdate=2 December 2014|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512051856/http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm|archivedate=12 May 2015|df=dmy-all}}
5. ^{{cite web|title=Official American|url=http://www.pbs.org/speak/seatosea/officialamerican/|website=PBS.org|publisher=MACNEIL/LEHRER PRODUCTIONS|accessdate=25 April 2018}}
6. ^{{cite web|title=Official American|url=http://www.pbs.org/speak/seatosea/officialamerican/|website=PBS.org|publisher=MACNEIL/LEHRER PRODUCTIONS|accessdate=25 April 2018}}
7. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=lang|title=Read about "Official or national languages" on Constitute|access-date=2016-03-28}}
8. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/index.html|title=L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde: page d'accueil|website=www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca|access-date=2016-03-28}}
9. ^endoglossic and exoglossic on OxfordDictionaries.com.
10. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aramaic-|title=ARAMAIC – Encyclopaedia Iranica|last=electricpulp.com|date=|website=www.iranicaonline.org|accessdate=14 April 2018}}
11. ^Records of the Grand Historian, 6
12. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=-WsDZsfTMsUC&pg=PR11&lpg=PR11&dq=%2522most+countries+are+multilingual%2522#v=onepage&q=%2522most%2520countries%2520are%2520multilingual%2522&f=false|title=Between Natives and Foreigners: Selected Writings of Karl/Charles Follen (1796-1840)|last=Follen|first=Charles|last2=Mehring|first2=Frank|date=2007-01-01|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=9780820497327|language=en}}
13. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t24AEb_ZY_0C|title=Representation and Democratic Theory|last=Laycock|first=David|date=2011-11-01|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=9780774841009|language=en}}
14. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BfGrGLY8C9kC|title=The Routledge Handbook of Multilingualism|last=Martin-Jones|first=Marilyn|last2=Blackledge|first2=Adrian|last3=Creese|first3=Angela|date=2012-01-01|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780415496476|language=en}}
15. ^[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100923090313/http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/docs/e/ola_llo_e.pdf Official Languages at the Heart of Our Identity: An overview of the Official Languages Act.] Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. Ottawa, Canada. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
16. ^{{cite web |title= War between Traditional and Simplified |date= 7 May 2014|publisher= anthony8988 |url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=frLsSX_62W4}}
17. ^{{cite web|url= http://rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=MzU= |title= Constitutional Provisions: Official Language Related Part-17 of The Constitution Of India |publisher= Department of Official Language, Government of India |accessdate= 1 July 2015 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20160201081439/http://rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=MzU%3D |archivedate= 1 February 2016 |df= }}
18. ^Languages Included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constution {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160604094122/http://rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=MTUz |date= 2016-06-04 }}
19. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/19/world/middleeast/israel-law-jews-arabic.html|title=Israeli Law Declares the Country the ‘Nation-State of the Jewish People’|last=Halbfinger|first=David M.|date=19 July 2018|work=New York Times|access-date=2018-07-24|last2=Kershner|first2=Isabel|language=en}}
20. ^The Palestine Gazette, No. 898 of 29 June 1939, Supplement 2, pp. 464–465.
21. ^Law and Administration Ordinance No 1 of 5708—1948, clause 15(b). Official Gazette No. 1 of 5th Iyar, 5708; as per authorised translation in Laws of the State of Israel, Vol. I (1948) p. 10.
22. ^Jarinovska, K. "Popular Initiatives as Means of Altering the Core of the Republic of Latvia", Juridica International. Vol. 20, 2013. p. 152 {{ISSN|1406-5509}}
23. ^New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006. New Zealand Legislation. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
24. ^NZ Sign Language to be third official language. Ruth Dyson. 2 April 2006. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
25. ^1 {{citeweb|url=http://www.constitutionalcourt.org.za/site/constitution/english-web/ch1.html|title=Chapter 1, Article 6 of the South African Constitution|website=constitutionalcourt.org.za|date=|accessdate=18 February 2018}}
26. ^{{citeweb|url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/2011-09-02-language-board-to-be-probed/|title=Language board to be probed|last1=Xaba|first1=Vusi|website=SowetanLive.co.za|date=2 September 2011|accessdate=28 February 2018}}
27. ^1 {{cite news|title= Language in South Africa: An official mess|date=July 5, 2013|work= The Economist|url= https://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2012/07/language-south-africa|accessdate= August 25, 2013}}
28. ^{{cite act |title=客家基本法 |trans-title=Hakka Basic Act |date= 31 January 2018 |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0140005}}
29. ^{{cite act |title=原住民族語言發展法 |trans-title=Indigenous Languages Development Act |date= 14 June 2017 |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037}}
30. ^{{cite news|title= Ukrainian Official Quits to Protest Russian-Language Bill|work= New York Times|date= July 4, 2012|author= David M. Herszenhorn|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/world/europe/top-ukrainian-lawmaker-quits-in-protest-of-language-bill.html|access-date= August 26, 2013}}
31. ^{{cite web|url=https://statswales.gov.wales/Catalogue/Welsh-Language/WelshSpeakers-by-LocalAuthority-Gender-DetailedAgeGroups-2011Census |title=Welsh speakers by local authority, gender and detailed age groups, 2011 Census |publisher=statswales.gov.wales |date=11 December 2012 |accessdate=22 May 2016}}
32. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/mwa/2011/1/section/1/enacted |publisher=The National Archives |work=legislation.gov.uk |title=Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 |accessdate=30 May 2016}}
33. ^  - US English: West Virginia Becomes 32nd State to Adopt English as Official Language
34. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite journal|title= Political Theory and Language Policy|author= Alan Patten|journal= Political Theory|volume= 29|number= 5|date= October 2011|pages= 691–715|url= http://www.princeton.edu/~apatten/languagepolicy_politicaltheory.pdf|accessdate= August 25, 2013|format= pdf|doi=10.1177/0090591701029005005}}
35. ^{{cite web|title= Available Languages|publisher= California DMV|url= https://www.dmv.ca.gov/portal/dmv/?1dmy&urile=wcm:path:/dmv_content_en/dmv/dl/dl_info#languages|accessdate= November 26, 2014}}
36. ^{{cite web|title= New York State Voter Registration Form|url= http://www.elections.ny.gov/NYSBOE/download/voting/voteform.pdf|website= New York State Board of Elections}}
37. ^{{cite web|title= Why Is Official English Necessary?|publisher= U.S. English|url= http://www.usenglish.org/view/10|accessdate=August 26, 2013|deadurl= yes|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130607145404/http://www.usenglish.org/view/10|archivedate= June 7, 2013|df= }}
38. ^1 {{cite web|title= Should English be declared America's national language?|author= James M. Inhofe|author2= Cecilia Muñoz|url= http://teacher.scholastic.com/scholasticnews/indepth/upfront/debate/index.asp?article=d1023|accessdate= August 25, 2013|work= The New York Times upfront|publisher= Scholastic}}
39. ^{{cite book|title= Effective Language Education Practices and Native Language Survival|chapter= Language Freedom and Restriction: A Historical Approach to the Official Language Controversy|author= James Crawford|pages= 9–22|chapter-url= http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/NALI2.html|accessdate= August 26, 2013}}
40. ^{{cite book|last=Mørk |first=Henning |year=2002 |language=Danish |title=Serbokroatisk grammatik: substantivets morfologi |trans-title=Serbo-Croatian Grammar: Noun Morphology |series=Arbejdspapirer ; vol. 1 |location=Århus |publisher=Slavisk Institut, Århus Universitet |page=unpaginated (Preface) |oclc=471591123}}
41. ^Václav Blažek, "On the Internal Classification of Indo-European Languages: Survey" retrieved 20 Oct 2010, pp. 15–16.
42. ^{{cite book |last=Kordić |first=Snježana |authorlink=Snježana Kordić |editor1-last=Madelain |editor1-first=Anne |title=Au sud de l'Est |series=vol. 3 |publisher=Non Lieu |pages=71–78 |language=French |chapter=La langue croate, serbe, bosniaque et monténégrine |trans-chapter=Croatian, Serbian, Bosniakian, and Montenegrin |chapterurl=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/429734.LA_LANGUE_CROATE_SERBE.PDF |location=Paris |year=2007 |isbn=978-2-35270-036-4 |oclc=182916790 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/69f5WqGAx?url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/429734.LA_LANGUE_CROATE_SERBE.PDF |df= }}
43. ^{{cite news|title= Language Politics in Bosnia|author= Selma Boračić|author2= Ajdin Kamber|date= December 5, 2011|publisher= Institute for War & Peace Reporting|url= http://iwpr.net/report-news/language-politics-bosnia|accessdate= August 26, 2013}}

Further reading

  • Writing Systems of the World: Alphabets, Syllabaries, Pictograms (1990), {{ISBN|0-8048-1654-9}} — lists official languages of the countries of the world, among other information.

External links

{{Wikidata property|P37}}
  • [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2098.html Languages by country] in The World Factbook
{{Portal bar|Languages}}

1 : Official languages
随便看

　

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。

　

Copyright © 2023 OENC.NET All Rights Reserved
京ICP备2021023879号 更新时间：2024/11/13 13:11:03