| 释义 |
- Biochemistry
- Pharmacology
- Health effects
- Omega-6 consumption
- List of omega-6 fatty acids
- Dietary linoleic acid requirement
- Dietary sources
- See also
- Notes and references Additional sources
{{About||an explanation of n and numerical nomenclature (such as n-6 or 18:2)|Fatty acid#Nomenclature|the 1920s French automobile|Oméga-Six}}{{Distinguish|trans fatty acids|omega-3 fatty acid}}{{Fats}}Omega-6 fatty acids (also referred to as ω-6 fatty acids or n-6 fatty acids) are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon-carbon double bond in the n-6 position, that is, the sixth bond, counting from the methyl end.[1] Members of the family can have pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory effects.[2]The biological effects of the omega-6 fatty acids are largely produced during and after physical activity for the purpose of promoting growth and during the inflammatory cascade to halt cell damage and promote cell repair by their conversion to omega-6 eicosanoids that bind to diverse receptors found in every tissue of the body. BiochemistryLinoleic acid (18:2, n−6), the shortest-chained omega-6 fatty acid, is one of many essential fatty acids and is categorized as an essential fatty acid because the human body cannot synthesize it. Mammalian cells lack the enzyme omega-3 desaturase and therefore cannot convert omega-6 fatty acids to omega-3 fatty acids. Closely related omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids act as competing substrates for the same enzymes.[3] This outlines the importance of the proportion of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids in a diet.[3]Omega-6 fatty acids are precursors to endocannabinoids, lipoxins, and specific eicosanoids. Medical research on humans found a correlation (though correlation does not imply causation) between the high intake of omega-6 fatty acids from vegetable oils and disease in humans. However, biochemistry research has concluded that air pollution, heavy metals, smoking, passive smoking, lipopolysaccharides, lipid peroxidation products (found mainly in vegetable oils, roasted nuts and roasted oily seeds) and other exogenous toxins initiate the inflammatory response in the cells which leads to the expression of the COX-2 enzyme and subsequently to the temporary production of inflammatory promoting prostaglandins from arachidonic acid for the purpose of alerting the immune system of the cell damage and eventually to the production of anti-inflammatory molecules (e.g. lipoxins & prostacyclin) during the resolution phase of inflammation, after the cell damage has been repaired.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] PharmacologyThe conversion of cell membrane arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) to omega-6 prostaglandin and omega-6 leukotriene eicosanoids during the inflammatory cascade provides many targets for pharmaceutical drugs to impede the inflammatory process in atherosclerosis, Health effectsSome medical research suggests that excessive levels of omega-6 fatty acids from seed oils relative to certain omega-3 fatty acids may increase the probability of a number of diseases.[16][17][18]. However, consumption of non-rancid nuts, which are high in omega 6, is associated with a lower risk for some diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases[19] including coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer, stroke, heart attacks, and lower rates of premature death.[19][20][21][22] Modern Western diets typically have ratios of omega-6 to omega-3 in excess of 10, some as high as 30; the average ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 in the Western diet is 15–16.7.Excess omega-6 fatty acids from vegetable oils interfere with the health benefits of omega-3 fats, in part because they compete for the same rate-limiting enzymes. A high proportion of omega-6 to omega-3 fat in the diet shifts the physiological state in the tissues toward the pathogenesis of many diseases: prothrombotic, proinflammatory and proconstrictive.[24] Chronic excessive production of omega-6 eicosanoids is correlated with arthritis, inflammation, and cancer. Many of the medications used to treat and manage these conditions work by blocking the effects of the COX-2 enzyme.[25] Many steps in formation and action of omega-6 prostaglandins from omega-6 arachidonic acid proceed more vigorously than the corresponding competitive steps in formation and action of omega-3 hormones from omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid.[26] The COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitor medications, used to treat inflammation and pain, work by preventing the COX enzymes from turning arachidonic acid into inflammatory compounds.name="lee2007">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.plefa.2007.10.018 |title=Antimanic therapies target brain arachidonic acid signaling: Lessons learned about the regulation of brain fatty acid metabolism |year=2007 |last1=Lee |first1=Ho-Joo |last2=Rao |first2=Jagadeesh S. |last3=Rapoport |first3=Stanley I. |last4=Bazinet |first4=Richard P. |journal=Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids |volume=77 |issue=5–6 |pages=239–46 |pmid=18042366}} A high consumption of oxidized polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are found in most types of vegetable oil, may increase the likelihood that postmenopausal women will develop breast cancer.[29] Similar effect was observed on prostate cancer, but the study was performed on mice.[30] Another "analysis suggested an inverse association between total polyunsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk, but individual polyunsaturated fatty acids behaved differently [from each other]. [...] a 20:2 derivative of linoleic acid [...] was inversely associated with the risk of breast cancer".[31] Omega-6 consumptionIndustry-sponsored studies have suggested that omega-6 fatty acids should be consumed in a 1:1 ratio to omega-3,[32] though it has been observed that the diet of many individuals today is at a ratio of about 16:1, mainly from vegetable oils.[32] Omega-6 and omega-3 are essential fatty acids that are metabolized by some of the same enzymes, and therefore an imbalanced ratio can affect how the other is metabolized.[33] In a study performed by Ponnampalam,[34] it was noticed that feeding systems had a great effect on nutrient content on the meat sold to consumers. Cynthia Doyle conducted an experiment to observe the fatty acid content of beef raised through grass feeding versus grain feeding; she concluded that grass fed animals contain an overall omega-6:omega-3 ratio that is preferred by nutritionists.[33] In today's modern agriculture, the main focus is on production quantity, which has decreased the omega-3 content, and increased the omega-6 content, due to simple changes such as grain-feeding cattle. List of omega-6 fatty acids| Common name | Lipid name | Chemical name | | Linoleic acid (LA) | 18:2 (n−6) | all-cis-9,12-octadecadienoic acid | | Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) | 18:3 (n−6) | all-cis-6,9,12-octadecatrienoic acid | | Calendic acid | 18:3 (n−6) | 8E,10E,12Z-octadecatrienoic acid | | Eicosadienoic acid | 20:2 (n−6) | all-cis-11,14-eicosadienoic acid | | Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) | 20:3 (n−6) | all-cis-8,11,14-eicosatrienoic acid | | Arachidonic acid (AA, ARA) | 20:4 (n−6) | all-cis-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid | | Docosadienoic acid | 22:2 (n−6) | all-cis-13,16-docosadienoic acid | | Adrenic acid | 22:4 (n−6) | all-cis-7,10,13,16-docosatetraenoic acid | | Osbond acid | 22:5 (n−6) | all-cis-4,7,10,13,16-docosapentaenoic acid | | Tetracosatetraenoic acid | 24:4 (n−6) | all-cis-9,12,15,18-tetracosatetraenoic acid | | Tetracosapentaenoic acid | 24:5 (n−6) | all-cis-6,9,12,15,18-tetracosapentaenoic acid |
The melting point of the fatty acids increase as the number of carbons in the chain increases. Dietary linoleic acid requirementAdding more controversy to the omega-6 fat issue is that the dietary requirement for linoleic acid has been questioned, because of a significant methodology error proposed by University of Toronto scientist Stephen Cunnane.[35] Cunnane proposed that the seminal research used to determine the dietary requirement for linoleic acid was based on feeding animals linoleic acid-deficient diets, which were simultaneously deficient in omega-3 fats. The omega-3 deficiency was not taken into account. The omega-6 oils added back systematically to correct the deficiency also contained trace amounts of omega-3 fats. Therefore, the researchers were inadvertently correcting the omega-3 deficiency as well. Ultimately, it took more oil to correct both deficiencies. According to Cunnane, this error overestimates linoleic acid requirements by 5 to 15 times.{{update inline|date=February 2018}} Dietary sources Four major food oils (palm, soybean, rapeseed, and sunflower) provide more than 100 million metric tons annually, providing more than 32 million metric tons of omega-6 linoleic acid and 4 million metric tons of omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid.[36] Dietary sources of omega-6 fatty acids include:[37] - poultry
- eggs
- nuts
- hulled sesame seeds
- cereals
- durum wheat
- whole-grain breads
- most vegetable oils
- grape seed oil
- evening primrose oil
- borage oil
- blackcurrant seed oil
- flax/linseed oil
- rapeseed or canola oil
- hemp oil
- soybean oil
- cottonseed oil
- sunflower seed oil
- corn oil
- safflower oil
- pumpkin seeds
See also- Essential fatty acid interactions
- Essential nutrients
- Linolenic acid
- Omega-3 fatty acid
- Omega-7 fatty acid
- Omega-9 fatty acid
- Wheat germ oil
- Lipid peroxidation
- Inflammation
- Cattle feeding
- Olive oil regulation and adulteration
- Ratio of fatty acids in different foods
Notes and references 1. ^{{cite book |last=Chow |first=Ching Kuang |oclc=25508943 |title=Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications |publisher=Routledge Publishing |location=New York |year=2001}}{{page needed|date=July 2013}}
2. ^{{cite journal | pmid = 20354260| title = Anti-inflammatory pro-resolving derivatives of omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids| journal = Postepy higieny i medycyny doswiadczalnej (Online)| volume = 64| pages = 115–32| year = 2010| last1 = JZ| first1 = Nowak}}
3. ^1 {{Cite journal|last1 = Bibus|first1 = Doug|last2 = Lands|first2 = Bill|title = Balancing proportions of competing omega-3 and omega-6 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) in tissue lipids|doi = 10.1016/j.plefa.2015.04.005|date = April 18, 2015|pmid = 26002802|volume=99|journal=Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids|pages=19–23}}
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