“Arabic phonology”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

While many languages have numerous dialects that differ in phonology, the contemporary spoken Arabic language is more properly described as a continuum of varieties.^[1] This article deals primarily with Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), which is the standard variety shared by educated speakers throughout Arabic-speaking regions. MSA is used in writing in formal print media and orally in newscasts, speeches and formal declarations of numerous types.^[2]

Modern Standard Arabic has 28 consonant phonemes and 6 vowel phonemes (8 vowels in most modern dialects). All phonemes contrast between "emphatic" (uvularized) consonants and non-emphatic ones. Some of these phonemes have coalesced in the various modern dialects, while new phonemes have been introduced through borrowing or phonemic splits. A "phonemic quality of length" applies to consonants as well as vowels.^[3]{{fix|text=does the source use the term 'uvularized'?|date=March 2017}}

Vowels

Modern Standard Arabic has six vowel phonemes forming three pairs of corresponding short and long vowels ({{IPA|/a, aː, i, iː, u, uː/}}). Many spoken varieties also include {{IPA|/oː/}} and {{IPA|/eː/}}. Modern Standard Arabic has two diphthongs (formed by a combination of short {{IPA|/a/}} with the semivowels {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}) in Classical Arabic with no allophones. Allophony in different dialects of Arabic can occur, and is partially conditioned by neighboring consonants within the same word. As a general rule, for example, {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/aː/}} are:

However, the actual rules governing vowel-retraction are a good deal more complex, and have relatively little in the way of an agreed-upon standard, as there are often competing notions of what constitutes a "prestige" form.^[7] Often, even highly proficient speakers will import the vowel-retraction rules from their native dialects.^[8] Thus, for example, in the Arabic of someone from Cairo emphatic consonants will affect every vowel between word boundaries, whereas certain Saudi speakers exhibit emphasis only on the vowels adjacent to an emphatic consonant.^[9] Certain speakers (most notably Levantine speakers) exhibit a degree of asymmetry in leftward vs. rightward spread of vowel-retraction.^[9]^[10]

However, the pronunciation of loanwords is highly dependent on the speaker's native variety.

The long mid vowels {{IPA|/oː/}} and {{IPA|/eː/}} appear in to be phonemic in most varieties of Arabic, and they can be used in Modern Standard Arabic in some stable loanwords or foreign names,^[11] e.g. {{lang|ar|كوكاكولا}} {{IPA|/ko(ː)kaˈkoːla/}} ('Coca-Cola'), {{lang|ar|شوكولاتة}} {{IPA|/ʃo(ː)ko(ː)ˈlaːta/}} ('chocolate'), {{lang|ar|دكتور}} {{IPA|/dukˈtoːr/}} or {{IPA|/dokˈtoːr/}} ('doctor'), {{lang|ar|جون}} {{IPA|/(d)ʒoːn/}} ('John'), {{lang|ar|توم}} {{IPA|/to(ː)m/}} ('Tom'), {{lang|ar|بلجيكا}} {{IPA|/belˈ(d)ʒiːka/}} ('Belgium'), {{lang|ar|سكرتير}} {{IPA|/sekreˈteːr/}} or {{IPA|/sekerˈteːr/}} ('secretary'), etc. Foreign words often have a liberal sprinkling of long vowels, as their word shapes do not conform to standardized prescriptive pronunciations written by letters for short vowels.^[12] When in need the letters {{lang|ar|ي}} or {{lang|ar|و}} are always used to render the long vowels {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}}.

Consonants

Even in the most formal of conventions, pronunciation depends upon a speaker's background.^[13] Nevertheless, the number and phonetic character of most of the 28 consonants has a broad degree of regularity among Arabic-speaking regions. Note that Arabic is particularly rich in uvular, pharyngeal, and pharyngealized ("emphatic") sounds. The emphatic coronals ({{IPA|/sˤ/}}, {{IPA|/dˤ/}}, {{IPA|/tˤ/}}, and {{IPA|/ðˤ/}}) cause assimilation of emphasis to adjacent non-emphatic coronal consonants.{{citation needed|date=September 2008}} The phonemes {{IPA|/p/}} ⟨پ⟩ and {{IPA|/v/}} ⟨ڤ⟩ (not used by all speakers) are not considered to be part of the phonemic inventory, as they exist only in foreign words and they can be pronounced as {{IPA|/b/}} ⟨ب⟩ and {{IPA|/f/}} ⟨ف⟩ respectively depending on the speaker.^[12]^[14]. The standard pronunciation of ⟨ج⟩ {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} varies regionally, most prominently {{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}} in the Arabian Peninsula, parts of the Levant, Iraq, northern Algeria and Sudan, it is also considered as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic outside the Arab world, {{IPAblink|ʒ}} in most of Northwest Africa and the Levant, and {{IPAblink|g}} only in Egypt.

Long (geminate or double) consonants are pronounced exactly like short consonants, but last longer. In Arabic, they are called mushaddadah ("strengthened", marked with a shaddah), but they are not actually pronounced any "stronger". Between a long consonant and a pause, an epenthetic {{IPA|[ə]}} occurs,^[6] but this is only common across regions in West Asia.

Phonotactics

Arabic syllable structure can be summarized as follows, in which parentheses enclose optional components:

Arabic syllable structure consists of an optional syllable onset, consisting of one or two consonants; an obligatory syllable nucleus, consisting of a vowel optionally preceded by and/or followed by a semivowel; and an optional syllable coda, consisting of one or two consonants. The following restrictions apply:

Word stress

The placement of word stress in Arabic varies considerably from one dialect to another, and has been the focus of extensive research and debate.

The word stress of Classical Arabic has been the subject of debate. However, there is consensus as to the general rule, even though there are some exceptions. A simple rule of thumb is that word-stress falls on the penultimate syllable of a word if that syllable is closed, and otherwise on the antepenultimate.^[26]

A more precise description is J. C. E. Watson's. Here the stressed syllable follows the marker ' and variant rules are in brackets:^[27]

Modern Arabic dialects all maintain rules (1) and (2). But if there is neither a final superheavy syllable nor a heavy penultimate syllable, their behaviour varies. Thus in Palestinian, rule (3) is instead 'otherwise stress the first syllable (up to the antepenult): {{IPA|[ˈkatab]}} ‘he wrote’, {{IPA|[ˈzalama]}} ‘man’', whereas the basic rules of Cairene (to which there are exceptions) are:^[28]

Local variations of Modern Standard Arabic

Spoken varieties differ from Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic not only in grammar but also in pronunciation. Outside of the Arabian peninsula, a major linguistic division is between sedentary varieties, largely urban varieties. Inside the Arabian peninsula and in Iraq, the two types are less distinct; but the language of the urbanized Hijaz, at least, strongly looks like a conservative sedentary variety.{{citation needed|date=April 2011}}

In Modern Standard Arabic {{IPA|/g/}} is used as a marginal phoneme to pronounce some dialectal and loan words.

On the other hand it is considered a native phoneme or allophone in most modern Arabic dialects, mostly as a variant of {{lang|ar|ق}} {{IPA|/q/}} (as in Arabian Peninsula and Northwest African dialects) or as a variant of {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} {{lang|ar|ج}} (as in Egyptian and a number of Yemeni and Omani dialects). It is also considered a separate foreign phoneme that appears only in loanwords, as in most urban Levantine dialects where {{lang|ar|ق}} is {{IPA|/ʔ/}} and {{lang|ar|ج}} is {{IPA|/d͡ʒ~ʒ/}}.

The phoneme represented by the Arabic letter {{transl|ar|DIN|ǧīm}} ({{lang|ar|ج}}) has many standard pronunciations: {{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}} in most of the Arabian Peninsula and as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic outside the Arab world, {{IPAblink|ɡ}} in most of Egypt and some regions in southern Yemen and southwestern Oman. This is also a characteristic of colloquial Egyptian and southern Yemeni dialects.^[29] In Morocco and western Algeria, it is pronounced as {{IPAblink|ɡ}} in some words, especially colloquially. In most north Africa and most of the Levant, the standard is pronounced {{IPAblink|ʒ}}, and in certain regions of the Persian Gulf colloquially with {{IPAblink|j}}. In some Sudanese and Yemeni dialects, it may be either {{IPA|[ɡʲ]}} or {{IPAblink|ɟ}} as it used to be in Classical Arabic.

Phonologies of different Arabic dialects

The main dialectal variations in Arabic consonants revolve around the six consonants; {{angbr|ج}}, {{angbr|ق}}, {{angbr|ث}}, {{angbr|ذ}}, {{angbr|ض}} and {{angbr|ظ}}:

Cairene

The Arabic of Cairo (often called "Egyptian Arabic" or more correctly "Cairene Arabic") is a typical sedentary variety and a de facto standard variety among certain segments of the Arabic-speaking population, due to the dominance of Egyptian media. Watson adds emphatic labials {{IPA|[mˤ]}} and {{IPA|[bˤ]}}^[34] and emphatic {{IPA|[rˤ]}}^[22] to Cairene Arabic with marginal phonemic status. Cairene has also merged the interdental consonants with the dental plosives (e.g. {{IPA|/θalaːθa/}} → {{IPA|[tæˈlæːtæ]}}, 'three') except in loanwords from Classical Arabic where they are nativized as sibilant fricatives (e.g. {{IPA|/θaːnawijja/}} → {{IPA|[sænæˈwejja]}}, 'secondary school'). Cairene speakers pronounce {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} as {{IPA|[ɡ]}} and debuccalized {{IPA|/q/}} to {{IPA|[ʔ]}} (again, loanwords from Classical Arabic have reintroduced the earlier sound^[33] or approximated to {{IPA|[k]}} with the front vowel around it {{IPAblink|æ}} changed to the back vowel {{IPAblink|ɑ}}). Classical Arabic diphthongs {{IPA|/aj/}} and {{IPA|/aw/}} became realized as {{IPA|[eː]}} and {{IPA|[oː]}} respectively. Still, Egyptian Arabic sometimes has minimal pairs like {{IPA|[ˈʃæjlæ]}} ('carrying' f.s.) vs {{IPA|[ˈʃeːlæ]}} ('burden'). {{IPA|[ɡeːb]}} 'pocket' + {{IPA|[næ]}} 'our' → collapsing with {{IPA|[ˈɡebnæ]}} which means ('cheese' or 'our pocket'),^[35] because Cairene phonology can't have long vowels before two consonants. Cairene also has {{IPAblink|ʒ}} as a marginal phoneme from loanwords from languages other than Classical Arabic.^[36]

Sanaa

Varieties such as that of Sanaa, Yemen, are more conservative and retain most phonemic contrasts of Classical Arabic. Sanaani possesses {{IPAblink|ɡ}} as a reflex of Classical {{IPAslink|q}} (which still functions as an emphatic consonant).^[35] In unstressed syllables, Sanaani short vowels may be reduced to {{IPAblink|ə}}.^[37] {{IPA|/tˤ/}} is voiced to {{IPA|[dˤ]}} in initial and intervocalic positions.^[34]

Morocco

Of all the mainstream varieties of Arabic, Moroccan Arabic is likely the one that has diverged the most from Classical Arabic, similarly to the position of French in the Romance languages and English among the Germanic languages. As described above, Moroccan has heavily innovated in its vowel phonology, under heavy Berber influence. Short vowels {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} merged into {{IPA|/ə/}}. More recently, most instances of short {{IPA|/u/}} have also merged into {{IPA|/ə/}}; the few that remain are mostly in the vicinity of velars and uvulars, which suggests an alternative analysis with phonemically rounded consonants (e.g. labiovelars) and only one short vowel {{IPA|/ə/}}. This schwa, in turn, is phonemically deleted in all contexts except directly followed by a single word-final consonant or in some three-consonant words of the shape CəCC. This inevitably results in some very long, complex consonant clusters, which (unlike most other Arabic varieties) Moroccan Arabic is remarkably tolerant of, only tending to insert epenthetic schwas to break up the clusters at a slow rate of speech. Unlike in other varieties, doubled consonants are never reduced, but are pronounced clearly whether occurring at the beginning of a word, end of a word, between vowels or before or after a consonant. With the collapse of short vowels, speakers no longer perceive a long vs. short distinction in vowels, which has been replaced with a "full" vs. "reduced/unstable" distinction. "Full" vowels (actually pronounced half-long) substitute for both the long and short vowels of Classical Arabic in borrowings; as a result, these borrowings can be immediately identified by their phonology.

A number of other unique or unusual developments have taken place. Stress is, for the most part, not detectable at all; to the extent stressed syllables can be identified, there is often no consistent pattern governing which syllable is stressed. Original {{IPA|/q/}} has split into two phonemes {{IPA|/q/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, reflecting the origin of Moroccan Arabic as a mixture of a sedentary and Bedouin dialect.

Original diphthongs {{IPA|/aj/}}, {{IPA|/aw/}} have merged into full vowels {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/u/}} rather than generating new vowel qualities; but "long diphthongs" {{IPA|/aj/}}, {{IPA|/aw/}} also exist, best analyzed as a combination of full vowel {{IPA|/a/}} and semivowel. Unlike most other varieties, emphasis not only triggers front/back allophones in {{IPA|/a/}}, but also high/low allophones in {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}, and {{IPA|/ə/}} varies between non-emphatic {{IPA|[ɪ̆]}}, emphatic {{IPA|[ə̆]}}, and pharyngeal-environment {{IPA|[ʌ̆]}}. On the other hand, emphasis spreads only as far as the first full vowel in either direction, unlike in most sedentary varieties where emphasis can spread much more widely, sometimes throughout the entire word. For the purposes of emphasis, {{IPA|/r/}} splits completely into non-emphatic {{IPA|/r/}} and emphatic {{IPA|/rˤ/}}, distinguishable mostly by their effects on adjacent vowels; with very few exceptions, the choice of one or another is consistent across all words derived from a given root. Most emphatic/nonemphatic pairs behave similarly, but {{IPA|/t/}} is affricated {{IPA|[tˢ]}} while {{IPA|/tˤ/}} is non-affricated {{IPA|[t]}}, so it is always possible to distinguish the two without recourse to their effects on surrounding vowels.

Distribution

The most frequent consonant phoneme is {{IPA|/r/}}, the rarest is {{IPA|/ðˤ/}}. The frequency distribution of the 28 consonant phonemes, based on the 2,967 triliteral roots listed by Wehr^[14] is (with the percentage of roots in which each phoneme occurs):

This distribution does not necessarily reflect the actual frequency of occurrence of the phonemes in speech, since pronouns, prepositions and suffixes are not taken into account, and the roots themselves will occur with varying frequency. In particular, {{IPA|/t/}} occurs in several extremely common affixes (occurring in the marker for second-person or feminine third-person as a prefix, the marker for first-person or feminine third-person as a suffix, and as the second element of Forms VIII and X as an infix) despite being fifth from last on Wehr's list. The list does give, however, an idea of which phonemes are more marginal than others. Note that the five least frequent letters are among the six letters added to those inherited from the Phoenician alphabet, namely, {{transl|ar|DIN|ḍād}}, {{transl|ar|DIN|ṯāʾ}}, {{transl|ar|DIN|ḫāʾ}}, {{transl|ar|DIN|ẓāʾ}}, {{transl|ar|DIN|ḏāl}} and {{transl|ar|DIN|ġayn}}.

Sample

The Literary Arabic sample text is a reading of The North Wind and the Sun by a speaker who was born in Safed, lived and was educated in Beirut from age 8 to 15, subsequently studied and taught in Damascus, studied phonetics in Scotland and since then has resided in Scotland and Kuwait.^[38]

Normal orthographic version

Diacriticized orthographic version

Phonemic transcription (with i‘rāb)

Phonemic transcription (without i‘rāb)

Phonetic transcription (Egypt)

ALA-LC transliteration

English Wiktionary transliteration (based on Hans Wehr)

References

1. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Kirchhoff|Vergyri|2005|p=38}}
2. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Kirchhoff|Vergyri|2005|pp=38–39}}
3. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Holes|2004|p=57}}
4. ^¹{{Harvcoltxt|Thelwall|1990|p=39}}
5. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Holes|2004|p=60}}
6. ^¹²{{Harvcoltxt|Thelwall|1990|p=38}}
7. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Abd-El-Jawad|1987|p=359}}
8. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Abd-El-Jawad|1987|p=361}}
9. ^¹{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|1999|p=290}}
10. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Davis|1995|p=466}}
11. ^¹Elementary Modern Standard Arabic: Volume 1, by Peter F. Abboud (Editor), Ernest N. McCarus (Editor)
12. ^¹²³Teach Yourself Arabic, by Jack Smart (Author), Frances Altorfer (Author)
13. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Holes|2004|p=58}}
14. ^¹Hans Wehr, Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (transl. of Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart, 1952)
15. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|p=44}}
16. ^Hans Wehr, Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (transl. of Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart, 1952)
17. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|p=18}}
18. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|pp=167–168}}
19. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Thelwall|1990}}, citing {{Harvcoltxt|Gairdner|1925}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Al Ani|1970}}, and {{Harvcoltxt|Käster|1981}}.
20. ^{{Harvcoltxt|McCarthy|1994|pp=194–195}}
21. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|p=19}}
22. ^¹²{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|p=16}}
23. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Holes|2004|p=95}}
24. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Ferguson|1956|p=449}}
25. ^Watson, JCE (2011) Word stress in Arabic. In: The Blackwell companion to phonology. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 2990-3019 (p. 2991), http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/75747/.
26. ^Kees Versteegh, The Arabic Language (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997), p. 90.
27. ^Watson, JCE (2011) Word stress in Arabic. In: The Blackwell companion to phonology. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 2990-3019 (p. 3003), http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/75747/.
28. ^Watson, JCE (2011) Word stress in Arabic. In: The Blackwell companion to phonology. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 2990-3019 (pp. 2993, 3004), http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/75747/.
29. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|p=16}}
30. ^Hans Wehr, Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (transl. of Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart, 1952)
31. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|pp=60–62}}, citing Ṣan‘ā’ni and Cairene as examples with and without this phoneme, respectively.
32. ^Gulf Arabic Sounds
33. ^¹{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|p=22}}
34. ^¹{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|p=14}}
35. ^¹{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|p=23}}
36. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|p=21}}
37. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Watson|2002|p=40}}
38. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Thelwall|1990|p=37}}
39. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Thelwall|1990|p=40}}
40. ^{{Harvcoltxt|Thelwall|1990|p=40}}