| 词条 | Paul Alivisatos |
| 释义 |
| name= Paul Alivisatos | image= File:Paul Alivisatos.jpg | image_size= | caption = Feb. 2003 | birth_date ={{birth date and age|1959|11|12}} | birth_place =Chicago, Illinois | death_date = | death_place = | residence = | citizenship = | nationality =United States | alma_mater =University of Chicago University of California, Berkeley | thesis_title = | thesis_url = | thesis_year = | doctoral_advisor = | doctoral_students = | known_for = Nanoscience Nanomaterials Development Nanocrystals | website = | footnotes = |term_start = November 19, 2009 | ethnicity = | field =Chemistry | work_institution = | author_abbreviation_bot = | author_abbreviation_zoo = | prizes = National Medal of Science (Chemistry - 2014) Wolf Prize in Chemistry Linus Pauling Medal Von Hippel Award The American Chemical Society Award in the Chemistry of Materials | religion = }}Paul Alivisatos (born November 12,1959) is an American scientist of Greek descent who has been hailed as a pioneer in nanomaterials development,[1][2] and is an internationally recognized authority on the fabrication of nanocrystals and their use in biomedical and renewable energy applications.[3] He is ranked fifth among the world's 100 top chemists in the list released by Thomson Reuters.[4] In 2009, he was named the Director of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory[5] and in 2014 he was named a laureate for the National Medal of Science.[6][7] In 2016 he was named U.C. Berkeley's Vice Chancellor for Research.[8] As of July 1, 2017, he is University of California, Berkeley's Executive Vice Chancellor and Provost, and will continue on as Vice Chancellor for Research on an interim basis.[9] Alivisatos is also Samsung Distinguished Professor in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Research[10] and Professor of Chemistry and Materials Science & Engineering at UC Berkeley. In addition, he directs the Kavli Energy Nanosciences Institute (ENSI), a new institute on the UC Berkeley campus launched by the Kavli Foundation to explore the application of nanoscience to sustainable energy technologies.[11][12] Early lifePaul Alivisatos was born in Chicago, Illinois, where he lived until the age of 10, when his family moved to Athens, Greece. Alivisatos has said of his years in Greece that it was a great experience for him because he had to learn the Greek language and culture then catch up with the more advanced students. "When I found something very interesting it was sometimes a struggle for me to understand it the very best that I could," he has said of that experience. "That need to work harder became an important motivator for me." Alivisatos returned to the United States to attend the University of Chicago in the late seventies.[13] Training and CareerIn 1981, Alivisatos earned a B.A. with honors in chemistry from the University of Chicago. In 1986, he received a Ph.D. in physical chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked under Charles Harris.[14] His Ph.D. thesis concerned the photophysics of electronically excited molecules near metal and semiconductor surfaces. He then joined AT&T Bell Labs working with Louis E. Brus, and began research in the field of nanotechnology. Alivisatos returned to UC Berkeley in 1988 as an assistant professor of chemistry, becoming associate professor in 1993 and professor in 1995. He served as Chancellor’s Professor from 1998-2001, and added an appointment as a professor of materials science and engineering in 1999. Alivisatos’ affiliation with Lawrence Berkeley National Lab (or Berkeley Lab) began in 1991 when he joined the staff of the Materials Sciences Division.[15] From 2005 to 2007 Alivisatos served as Berkeley Lab’s Associate Laboratory Director for the Physical Sciences area. In 2008, he served as Deputy Lab Director under Berkeley Lab Director Steven Chu, and then as interim director when Chu stepped down to become the Secretary of Energy. He was named the seventh Director of the Berkeley Lab on November 19, 2009, by the University of California Board of Regents on the recommendation of UC President Mark Yudof and with the concurrence of the U.S. Department of Energy.[5] Energy Secretary Steven Chu noted that Alivisatos is "an incredible scientist with incredible judgment on a variety of issues. He’s level-headed and calm, and he has an ability to inspire people…[and he can] take projects from material science to real-world applications."[16] Nanosciences ResearchAlivisatos is an internationally recognized authority on nanochemistry and a pioneer in the synthesis of semiconductor quantum dots and multi-shaped artificial nanostructures.[17] Further, he is a world expert on the chemistry of nanoscale crystals; one of his papers (Science, 271: 933-937, 1996) has been cited over 9,100 times.[18] He is also an expert on how these can be applied, for example as biological markers (e.g., Science, 281: 2013-16, 1998; a paper cited over 7,400 times[19]). In addition, his use of DNA in this area (DNA nanotechnology) has shown the surprising versatility of this molecule. He has used it to direct crystal growth and create new materials, as in Nature, 382: 609-11, 1996, and even to measure nanoscale distances (see Nature Nanotechnology, 1: 47-52, 2006).[20] He is widely recognized as being the first to demonstrate that semiconductor nanocrystals can be grown into complex two-dimensional shapes, as opposed to simple one-dimensional spheres.[20][21] Alivisatos proved that controlling the growth of nanocrystals is the key to controlling both their size and shape. This achievement altered the nanoscience landscape and paved the way for a slew of new potential applications, including biomedical diagnostics, revolutionary photovoltaic cells, and LED materials.[22] NanocrystalsNanocrystals are aggregates of anywhere from a few hundred to tens of thousands of atoms that combine into a crystalline form of matter known as a "cluster." Typically a few nanometers in diameter, nanocrystals are larger than molecules but smaller than bulk solids and therefore often exhibit physical and chemical properties somewhere in between. Given that a nanocrystal is virtually all surface and no interior, its properties can vary considerably as the crystal grows in size. Prior to Alivisatos’ research, all non-metal nanocrystals were dot-shaped, meaning they were essentially one-dimensional. No techniques had been reported for making two-dimensional or rod-shaped semiconductor nanocrystals that would also be of uniform size. However, in a landmark paper that appeared in the March 2, 2000 issue of the journal Nature,[23] Alivisatos reported on techniques used to select the size but vary the shapes of the nanocrystals produced. This was hailed as a major breakthrough in nanocrystal fabrication because rod-shaped semiconductor nanocrystals can be stacked to create nano-sized electronic devices. The rod-shaped nanocrystal research, coupled with earlier work led by Alivisatos in which it was shown that quantum dots or "qdots"–nanometer-sized crystal dots (spheres a few billionths of a meter in size)– made from semiconductors such as cadmium selenide can emit multiple colors of light depending upon the size of the crystal, opened the door to using nanocrystals as fluorescent probes for the study of biological materials, biomedical research tools and aids to diagnosis,[24] and as light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Alivisatos went on to use his techniques to create an entirely new generation of hybrid solar cells that combined nanotechnology with plastic electronics.[17] Technology Transfer and Translational ImpactAlivisatos is the founding scientist of Quantum Dot Corporation,[25] a company that makes crystalline nanoscale tags that are used in the study of cell behavior.[26] (Quantum Dot is now part of Life Technologies.) He also founded the nanotechnology company Nanosys,[27] and Solexant, a photovoltaic start-up that has since restarted as Siva Power.[28] His research has led to the development of applications in range of industries, including bioimaging (for example, the use of quantum dots for luminescent labeling of biological tissue); display technologies (his quantum dot emissive film is found in the Kindle Fire HDX tablet);[29] and renewable energy (solar applications of quantum dots). U.S. PatentsMore than 20 as of 2014.[30] Lawrence Berkeley National Lab (also Berkeley Lab)Under Alivisatos’ leadership, Berkeley Lab has embarked upon an ambitious period of strategic scientific infrastructure renewal, and shifted its priorities to the more interdisciplinary areas of renewable energy and climate-change research.[1][2] During his tenure, the Lab began construction on new buildings for computational research, buildings efficiency, solar energy research, and biological science. During this time, the Lab also cleared the legacy Bevatron site[31] and has partially cleared and is working to finish cleaning the "Old Town" site. This has left the Lab better able to contribute to the Department of Energy’s mission today, and with room for potential growth on brownfield sites in the future. In addition, Alivisatos has proactively invigorated Berkeley Lab’s safety culture, elevated the Lab’s community outreach and operational efficiency efforts, and is currently working to build a more diverse and inclusive community within the lab.[32] On March 23, 2015 Alvisatos announced that he is stepping down as Director when a replacement is identified.[33] As he develops these initiatives across the Lab, Alivisatos has remained focused on integrating the Lab into the nation’s innovation ecosystem, especially in the areas of energy and the environment. While some of the groundwork for this integration was laid by former Director Steve Chu, Alivisatos has led efforts to leverage the wide range of scientific capabilities at Berkeley Lab with a variety of industry partners and entrepreneurs. These public/private sector collaborations have resulted in technology transfer for industries as diverse as automobiles and medicine, and have contributed to an increased speed of development in manufacturing and renewable energy.[34] In addition to his emphasis on innovation and outreach to the private sector, Alivisatos is also working to create a more closely connected network of the U.S. Dept. of Energy's 17 national labs. He serves as the chair of the National Lab Directors Council, and has encouraged greater alignment and collaboration across the labs on such issues as diversity and workforce development. Alivisatos has also been outspoken on the issue of basic science funding at the federal level and America’s ability to stay competitive in the areas global scientific research and development.[35][36] Awards and honors
In addition to those listed above, Alivisatos has held fellowships with the American Association for the Advancement of Science,[58] the American Physical Society (1996),[59] and the American Chemical Society.[60] He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences[61] and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[62] Notable publications
For a full list of publications, see http://www.cchem.berkeley.edu/pagrp/publications.html Notable lectures, talks and panels
EditorshipsAlivisatos is the founding editor of Nano Letters, a publication of the American Chemical Society.[63] He formerly served on the Senior Editorial Board of Science. He has also served on the editorial advisory boards of ACS Nano, the Journal of Physical Chemistry, Chemical Physics, the Journal of Chemical Physics, and Advanced Materials. References1. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=E.|title=Paul Alivisatos: LBNL's new director focuses on renewable energy, climate|journal=Chemical and Engineering News|date=Feb 8, 2010|volume=88|issue=6|page=55|doi=10.1021/cen-v088n006.p055}} 2. ^1 {{cite web|title=National Award Recipient Citations|url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/funding-and-awards/awards/national/2014-recipient-citations.html|website=www.acs.org|publisher=American Chemical Society|accessdate=June 9, 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903041600/http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/funding-and-awards/awards/national/2014-recipient-citations.html|archivedate=September 3, 2014|df=}} 3. ^{{cite news|title=Paul Alivisatos: Berkeley Lab director navigates uncertain times with a focus on research|url=http://spie.org/x108554.xml|accessdate=June 11, 2014|agency=SPIE Newsroom|issue=DOI: 10.1117/2.321405.05|publisher=SPIE: The International Society for Optics & Photonics|date=May 30, 2014}} 4. ^{{cite news|title=Science Watch: Top 100 Chemists, 2000-2010: Special Report on High-Impact Chemists|url=http://archive.sciencewatch.com/dr/sci/misc/Top100Chemists2000-10/|accessdate=June 10, 2014|agency=Thomson Reuters|date=Feb 10, 2011}} 5. ^1 About the Director-Berkeley Lab {{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/5dizjtwwa?url=http://www.lbl.gov/Publications/Director/ |date=January 10, 2009 }} 6. ^1 http://nationalmedals.org/laureates/armand-paul-alivisatos 7. ^White House to honor Alivisatos, Hu with National Medals of Science, Technology, Berkeley News 8. ^http://www.dailycal.org/2016/01/24/paul-alivisatos-appointed-uc-berkeleys-vice-chancellor-research/ 9. ^http://evcp.berkeley.edu/evcp-paul-alivisatos 10. ^{{cite news|title=Alivisatos appointed Samsung Distinguished Chair in Nanoscience|url=http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2013/08/22/alivisatos-appointed-samsung-distinguished-chair-in-nanoscience/|accessdate=Sep 2, 2014|work=article|agency=UC Berkeley News Center|publisher=University of California Berkeley|date=Aug 22, 2013}} 11. ^{{cite news|last1=Brown|first1=S.|title=UC Berkeley, Lawrence Berkeley Lab open new energy nanoscience center|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/news/2013/10/04/uc-berkeley-lawrence-berkeley-lab.html|accessdate=June 10, 2014|agency=SF Business Times|date=Oct 4, 2013}} 12. ^{{cite web|title=Introducing the Kavli Energy NanoSciences Institute|url=http://www.kavlifoundation.org/science-spotlights/Kavli-ENSI-feature#.VAM8OLxdV2c|website=www.kavlifoundation.org|publisher=The Kavli Foundation|accessdate=June 9, 2014}} 13. ^{{cite web|title=Lawrence Berkeley National Lab: Leadership: Berkeley Lab Director Paul Alivisatos|url=http://www.lbl.gov/lab-leadership/director/|website=www.lbl.gov|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Lab|accessdate=June 10, 2014}} 14. ^{{cite journal|title=Outstanding Young Investigator Award Given to Alivisatos for Nanocrystal Research|journal=MRS Bulletin|date=Feb 1995|volume=20|issue=2|pages=63|doi=10.1557/S0883769400049277}} 15. ^{{cite web|title=A. Paul Alivisatos|url=http://www.aip.org/history/acap/biographies/bio.jsp?alivisatosa|website=http://www.aip.org/|publisher=Array of Contemporary American Physicists|accessdate=Aug 31, 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903113341/http://www.aip.org/history/acap/biographies/bio.jsp?alivisatosa|archivedate=2014-09-03|df=}} 16. ^{{cite journal|last1=Castle|first1=K.|title=Raising the Energy Level at the Berkeley Lab|journal=Innovation|date=April–May 2010|volume=8|issue=2|url=http://www.innovation-america.org/raising-energy-level-berkeley-lab|accessdate=June 10, 2014}} 17. ^1 {{cite news|last1=Yarris|first1=L.|title=Berkeley Lab Director Paul Alivisatos Wins Wolf Prize in Chemistry|url=http://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/news/berkeley-lab-director-paul-alivisatos-wins-wolf-prize-chemistry|accessdate=July 22, 2014|agency=Berkeley Research University of California News|publisher=University of California Berkeley|date=Jan 12, 2012}} 18. ^{{cite web|title=Science, 271: 933-937, 1996|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=science%2C+271%3A+933-937%2C+1996&btnG=&as_sdt=1%2C5&as_sdtp=|website=scholar.google.com|accessdate=Aug 22, 2014}} 19. ^{{cite web|title=Science, 281, 1998, alivisatos|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Science%2C+281%2C+1998%2C+alivisatos&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5|website=scholar.google.com|accessdate=Aug 22, 2014}} 20. ^1 {{cite web|last1=Emsley|first1=J.|title=DNA Nanotechnology: Chemistry|url=http://sciencewatch.com/nobel/predictions/dna-nanotechnology|website=sciencewatch.com|publisher=Thomson Reuters|accessdate=June 9, 2014}} 21. ^{{cite news|title=Nanotechnology expert Paul Alivisatos wins Wolf Prize in Chemistry|url=http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=23945.php|accessdate=June 9, 2014|agency=Nanowerk News|publisher=Nanowerk|date=Jan 12, 2012}} 22. ^{{cite news|last1=Bernstein|first1=M.|title=ACS Nano Letters co-editors A. Paul Alivisatos and Charles M. Lieber win prestigious Wolf Foundation Prize|url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/pressroom/newsreleases/2012/january/acs-nano-letters-co-editors-a-paul-alivisatos-and-charles-m-lieber-win-prestigious-wolf-foundation-prize.html|accessdate=June 9, 2014|work=press release|publisher=American Chemical Society|date=Jan 19, 2012}} 23. ^{{cite journal|author1=Peng, X. G. |author2=Manna, L. |author3=Yang, W. D. |author4=Wickham, J. |author5=Scher, E. |author6=Kadavanich, A. |author7=Alivisatos, A. P. |title=Shape control of CdSe nanocrystals|journal=Nature|date=2000|volume=404|issue=6773|pages=59–61|doi=10.1038/35003535|pmid=10716439 }} 24. ^{{cite journal|last1=Alivisatos|first1=P.|title=Less is More in Medicine|journal=Scientific American|date=Aug 17, 2007|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/less-is-more-in-medicine-2007-09/|accessdate=June 10, 2014}} 25. ^{{cite news|last1=Chang|first1=K.|title=Tiny Is Beautiful: Translating ‘Nano’ Into Practical|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/22/science/22nano.html?pagewanted=print&module=Search&mabReward=relbias%3Ar|accessdate=June 9, 2014|work=article|agency=New York Times|date=Feb 22, 2005}} 26. ^{{cite news|last1=Feder|first1=B.J.|title=Bashful vs. Brash in the New Field of Nanotech|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/15/business/technology-bashful-vs-brash-in-the-new-field-of-nanotech.html|accessdate=June 9, 2014|work=article|agency=New York Times|date=March 15, 2004}} 27. ^{{cite news|last1=Kanellos|first1=M.|title=Samsung Invests in Nanosys, Licenses Technology|url=http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/samsung-invests-in-nanosys-licenses-technology|accessdate=June 9, 2014|work=article|agency=greentechsolar|publisher=greentechmedia|date=Aug 10, 2010}} 28. ^{{cite news|last1=Wesoff|first1=E.|title=Solexant Rebrands as Siva and Looks to Scale CIGS Thin-Film Solar|url=http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Solexant-Rebrands-as-Siva-and-Looks-to-Scale-CIGS-Thin-Film-Solar|accessdate=June 9, 2014|work=article|agency=greentechmedia|date=Nov 21, 2013}} 29. ^{{cite news|author1=Chatterjee, S. |author2=Maan, L.|title=With sharp focus, quantum dot makers scale up to meet demand|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/13/electronics-quantum-dots-idUSL4N0PB2LM20140813|accessdate=Aug 30, 2014|work=article|agency=Reuters|publisher=Thomson Reuters|date=Aug 13, 2014}} 30. ^{{cite web|title=Alivisatos - United States|url=http://search.uspto.gov/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&affiliate=web-sdmg-uspto.gov&query=alivisatos&go=Go|website=uspto.gov|publisher=United States Patent and Trademark Office|accessdate=Aug 20, 2014}} 31. ^{{cite news|title=Farewell Bevatron: Massive Demolition Effort Nears the End|url=http://today.lbl.gov/farewell-bevatron-massive-demolition-effort-nears-the-end/|accessdate=June 20, 2014|work=article|agency=Today at Berkeley Lab|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Lab|date=Feb 9, 2012}} 32. ^{{cite web|title=Director's Q&A|url=http://diversity.lbl.gov/directors-q-a/|website=diversity.lbl.gov|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Lab|accessdate=July 22, 2014}} 33. ^{{cite web|title=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory director to step down|url=http://www.dailycal.org/2015/03/23/lawrence-berkeley-national-laboratory-director-to-step-down/|publisher=Daily California|accessdate=24 March 2015}} 34. ^{{cite news|last1=Storar|first1=S.|title=Lab Researchers Earn Royalties|url=http://today.lbl.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/FY12royalty_event_final.pdf|accessdate=Aug 31, 2014|work=article|agency=Today at Berkeley Lab|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Lab|date=March 26, 2013}} 35. ^{{cite journal|last1=Alivisatos, P., Isaacs, E., & Mason, T.|title=The Sequester Is Going to Devastate U.S. Science Research for Decades|journal=The Atlantic|date=March 12, 2013|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/03/the-sequester-is-going-to-devastate-us-science-research-for-decades/273925/|accessdate=July 22, 2014}} 36. ^{{cite news|last1=Alivisatos|first1=P.|title=American Science Struggles Through Budget Cuts|url=http://onpoint.wbur.org/2013/05/28/budget-cuts-science-research|accessdate=July 22, 2014|work=Radio broadcast|agency=WBUR Boston|publisher=National Public Radio|date=May 28, 2013}} 37. ^{{cite web|title=Past Fellows|url=http://www.sloan.org/sloan-research-fellowships/past-fellows/?tx_sloangrants_sloanfellows%5Bpage%5D=2&tx_sloangrants_sloanfellows%5BlastPage%5D=3&tx_sloangrants_sloanfellows%5Bsortby%5D=&tx_sloangrants_sloanfellows%5Border%5D=&tx_sloangrants_sloanfellows%5Bsearch%5D=paul&tx_sloangrants_sloanfellows%5Bcontroller%5D=Fellows&tx_sloangrants_sloanfellows%5Blast%5D=3&cHash=bed058a1e71d4d250c67f3bf985dd070|website=www.sloan.org|publisher=Alfred P. 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KGaA, Weinheim|date=May 13, 2012}} 52. ^{{cite web|title=President Obama to Honor Nation's Leading Scientists and Innovators|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/12/22/president-obama-honor-nations-leading-scientists-and-innovators|website=The White House|publisher=Office of the Press Secretary|accessdate=5 January 2016}} 53. ^{{cite journal|title=ACS 2014 National Award Winners|journal=Chemical & Engineering News|date=Sep 9, 2013|volume=91|issue=36|pages=84–86|url=http://cen.acs.org/articles/91/i36/ACS-2014-National-Award-Winners.html?h=1506832942|accessdate=Aug 22, 2014|doi=10.1021/cen-09136-awards}} 54. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.hapsca.org/events.html|website=Hellenic American Professional Society|accessdate=5 January 2016}} 55. ^{{cite web|title=Spiers Memorial Award|url=http://www.rsc.org/ScienceAndTechnology/Awards/SpiersMemorialAward/|website=Royal Society of Chemistry|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|accessdate=5 January 2016}} 56. ^{{cite web|title=2016 Dan David Prize Laureates|url=http://www.dandavidprize.org/|website=The Dan David Foundation|accessdate=16 February 2016|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425145608/http://www.dandavidprize.org/laureates/laureates-2012/128-2012-past-historybiography/339--robert-conquest.html|archivedate=25 April 2012|df=}} 57. ^NAS Award in Chemical Sciences 2017 58. ^{{cite web|title=UC Davis Department of Applied Science, Edward Teller Distinguished Lecture Series on Interdisciplinary Science|url=http://parikh.ucdavis.edu/pages/news/Teller%20lecture.Alivisatos.pdf|accessdate=June 9, 2014}} 59. ^APS Fellow Archive 60. ^{{cite web|title=2009 Fellows|url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/funding-and-awards/fellows/list-of-2009-acs-fellows.html|website=www.acs.org|publisher=American Chemical Society|accessdate=June 9, 2014}} 61. ^{{cite web|title=Member Directory, "A. Paul Alivisatos"|url=http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/members/2537022.html|publisher=National Academy of Sciences|accessdate=June 9, 2014}} 62. ^{{cite web|title=Book of Members|url=https://www.amacad.org/multimedia/pdfs/publications/bookofmembers/ChapterA.pdf|website=www.amacad.org|publisher=American Academy of Arts & Sciences|accessdate=June 10, 2014}} 63. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.cchem.berkeley.edu/pagrp/people.html|title=Alivisatos Group People|website=www.cchem.berkeley.edu|access-date=2016-10-10}} External links
12 : 21st-century American chemists|American people of Greek descent|Living people|Nanotechnologists|University of California, Berkeley alumni|University of Chicago alumni|Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences|Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences|Wolf Prize in Chemistry laureates|1959 births|University of California, Berkeley College of Chemistry faculty|ISI highly cited researchers |
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开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。