| 词条 | Picea rubens |
| 释义 |
| name = Red spruce | image = Picea rubens UGA5349098.jpg | image_caption = | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = [1] | genus = Picea | species = rubens | authority = Sarg. | range_map = Picea rubens range map.png | synonyms =
| synonyms_ref = [2] }}Picea rubens, commonly known as red spruce, is a species of spruce native to eastern North America, ranging from eastern Quebec and Nova Scotia, west to the Adirondack Mountains and south through New England along the Appalachians to western North Carolina.[3][4][5] This species is also known as yellow spruce, West Virginia spruce, eastern spruce, and he-balsam.[6][7] DescriptionRed spruce is a perennial,[8] shade-tolerant, late successional[9] coniferous tree that under optimal conditions grows to {{convert|18|-|40|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall with a trunk diameter of about {{convert|60|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}, though exceptional specimens can reach {{convert|46|m|abbr=on}} tall and {{convert|100|cm|in|0|abbr=in}} in diameter. It has a narrow conical crown. The leaves are needle-like, yellow-green, {{convert|12|-|15|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}} long, four-sided, curved, with a sharp point, and extend from all sides of the twig. The bark is gray-brown on the surface and red-brown on the inside, thin, and scaly. The wood is light, soft, has narrow rings, and has a slight red tinge.[10] The cones are cylindrical, {{convert|3|-|5|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long, with a glossy red-brown color and stiff scales. The cones hang down from branches.[3][4][5][11] HabitatRed spruce grows at a slow to moderate rate, lives for 250 to 450+ years, and is very shade-tolerant when young.[12] It is often found in pure stands or forests mixed with eastern white pine, balsam fir, or black spruce. Along with Fraser fir, red spruce is one of two primary tree types in the southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest, a distinct ecosystem found only in the highest elevations of the Southern Appalachian Mountains.[13] Its habitat is moist but well-drained sandy loam, often at high altitudes. Red spruce can be easily damaged by windthrow and acid rain. Notable red spruce forests can be seen at Gaudineer Scenic Area, a virgin red spruce forest located in West Virginia, the Canaan Valley, Roaring Plains West Wilderness, Dolly Sods Wilderness, Spruce Mountain and Spruce Knob all also in West Virginia and all sites of former extensive red spruce forest. Some areas of this forest, particularly in Roaring Plains West Wilderness, Dolly Sods Wilderness as well as areas of Spruce Mountain are making a rather substantial recovery. Related speciesIt is closely related to black spruce, and hybrids between the two are frequent where their ranges meet.[3][4][5] Genetic data suggests that the red spruce peripatrically speciated from the black spruce during the Pleistocene due to glaciation.[14][15] UsesRed spruce is used for Christmas trees and is an important wood used in making paper pulp. It is also an excellent tonewood, and is used in many higher-end acoustic guitars and violins, as well as musical soundboard. The sap can be used to make spruce gum.[11] Leafy red spruce twigs are boiled as a part of making spruce beer. Also it can be made into spruce pudding. It can also be used as construction lumber and is good for millwork and for crates.[16] Red spruce is the provincial tree of Nova Scotia.[4] Damaging factorsLike most trees, red spruce is subject to insect parasitism. Their insect enemy is the spruce budworm, although it is a bigger problem for white spruce and balsam fir.[17] Other issues that have been damaging red spruce has been the increase in acid rain and current climate change.[18] ConservationThe Central Appalachian Spruce Restoration Initiative (CASRI)[19] seeks to unite diverse partners with the goal of restoring historic red spruce ecosystems across the high-elevation landscapes of central Appalachians. The partners that make up this diverse group are Appalachian Mountain Joint Venture, Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative, Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge, Natural Resources Conservation Service, The Mountain Institute, The Nature Conservancy, Trout Unlimited, U.S. Forest Service Northern Research Station, U.S. Forest Service Monongahela National Forest, West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, West Virginia Division of Forestry, West Virginia Highlands Conservancy, West Virginia State Parks, and West Virginia University.[20] Prior to the late 1800s, {{convert|600,000|ha}} of red spruce were in West Virginia. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, a vast amount of logging began in the state and the number of red spruce dwindled to {{convert|12,000|ha}}. Silviculture is being used to help restore the population of the lost red spruce.[21] Significant efforts have been made to increase the growth of red spruce trees in western North Carolina. Most notably by Molly Tartt on behalf of the Daughters of the American Revolution. Tartt, a resident of Brevard North Carolina, embarked on a mission to find the lost red spruce Pisgah Forest that had been planted by the DAR as a memorial to the lives lost during the American Revolution. The forest, consisting of 50,000 trees was dedicated in 1940 and had until recently been forgotten until Tartt located and identified the forest. {{citation needed|date=June 2018}} {{clear}}References{{Commons category|Picea rubens}}1. ^{{cite journal | author =Farjon, A. |title =Picea rubens | journal = IUCN Red List of Threatened Species | volume=2013 | page =e.T42335A2973542 | publisher = IUCN | year =2013 | url =http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/42335/0 | doi =10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42335A2973542.en | access-date =11 November 2016}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q469151}}2. ^{{ThePlantList |id=kew-2563588 |taxon=Picea rubens |authority=Sarg.}} 3. ^1 2 Farjon, A. (1990). Pinaceae. Drawings and Descriptions of the Genera. Koeltz Scientific Books {{ISBN|3-87429-298-3}}. 4. ^1 2 3 {{eFloras|1|233500913|Picea rubens |family=Pinaceae |first=Ronald J. |last=Taylor}} 5. ^1 2 {{Gymnosperm Database |family=Pinaceae |genus=Picea |species=rubens}} 6. ^{{Silvics |volume=1 |genus=Picea |species=rubens |first=Barton M. |last=Blum}} 7. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7OVkfjEOAcC&pg=PA51 |title=A Natural History of Trees of Eastern and Central North America |last=Peattie |first=Donald Culross |date=1948-01-01 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year= |isbn=0-395-58174-5 |location=|page=51|pages=|language=en|via=}} 8. ^{{cite web|title=Red Spruce (Rubens)|url=http://www.gardenguides.com/taxonomy/red-spruce-picea-rubens/|publisher=Garden Guides|accessdate=27 February 2014}} 9. ^{{cite journal|last=Dumais|first=D|author2=Prevost, M|title=Management for red spruce conservation in Quebec: The importance of some physiological and ecological characteristics – A review|journal=Forestry Chronicle|date=June 2007|volume=83|issue=3|pages=378–392|url=http://search.proquest.com/agricola/docview/294760995/57698883459842CBPQ/7?accountid=26746|accessdate=27 February 2014|doi=10.5558/tfc83378-3}} 10. ^{{cite web|title=Red Spruce|url=http://plants.usda.gov/factsheet/pdf/fs_piru.pdf|publisher=USDA NRCS|accessdate=26 February 2014}} 11. ^1 {{cite web |website=A handbook of Maritime trees |publisher=Atlantic Forestry Centre |url=http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/subsite/maritimetrees/redspruce |title=Red Spruce |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080818060019/http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/subsite/maritimetrees/redspruce |archive-date=2008-08-18 }} 12. ^http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~adk/oldlisteast/#spp 13. ^{{cite encyclopedia |first=Peter |last=White |contribution=Boreal Forest |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Appalachia |publisher=University of Tennessee Press |date=2006 |pages=49-50}} 14. ^{{Citation |title=New evidence from mitochondrial DNA of a progenitor-derivative species relationship between black and red spruce (Pinaceae) |author=Juan P. Jaramillo-Correa & Jean Bousquet |journal=American Journal of Botany |year=2003 |volume=90 |issue=12 |pages=1801–1806 |doi= 10.3732/ajb.90.12.1801}} 15. ^{{Citation |title=Diverging patterns of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in subarctic black spruce: imprint of a founder effect associated with postglacial colonization |author=Isabelle Gamache, Juan P. Jaramillo-Correa, Sergey Payette, & Jean Bousquet |journal=Molecular Ecology |year=2003 |volume=12 |issue= 4|pages=891–901 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294x.2003.01800.x|pmid=12753210 }} 16. ^{{cite web|title=Red Spruce|url=http://www.wood-database.com/lumber-identification/softwoods/red-spruce/|publisher=The Wood Database|accessdate=27 February 2014}} 17. ^{{EOL|1033620|Red Spruce |access-date=27 February 2014}} 18. ^{{cite journal|last=Houle|first=Daniel|title=Compositional vegetation changes and increased red spruce abundance during the Little Ice Age in a sugar maple forest of north-eastern North America|journal=Plant Ecology|year=2012|volume=213|issue=6|pages=1027–1035|doi=10.1007/s11258-012-0062-0}} 19. ^{{cite journal |last=Burks |first=Evan |date=Dec 2010 |url=http://www.wonderfulwv.com/sub.cfm?month=dec10&fea=1 |title=Return of the Red Spruce |dead-url=yes |journal=Wonderful West Virginia |volume=74 |issue=12 |pages=6-11}} 20. ^{{cite web|last=Bove|first=Jennifer|title=Appalachian Red Spruce Forest|url=http://endangeredspecies.about.com/od/endangeredspecieshabitats/a/Appalachian-Red-Spruce-Forest.htm|accessdate=27 February 2014}} 21. ^{{cite journal|last=Rentch|first=James|author2=T. Schuler |author3=M. Ford |author4=G. Nowacki |title=Red Spruce Stand Dynamics, Simulations, and Restoration Opportunities in the Central Appalachians|journal=Restoration Ecology|date=September 2007|volume=15|issue=3|pages=440–452|url=http://search.proquest.com/agricola/docview/289371889/57698883459842CBPQ/3?accountid=26746|accessdate=27 February 2014 |doi=10.1111/j.1526-100x.2007.00240.x}} 10 : Appalachian forests|Picea|Trees of Eastern Canada|Trees of the Northeastern United States|Flora of the Appalachian Mountains|Trees of the Eastern United States|Trees of the Southeastern United States|Natural history of the Great Smoky Mountains|Trees of humid continental climate|Least concern flora of the United States |
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