Military nurses had already been "feminized" and it was an accepted profession for women. In 1917, Louisa Lee Schuyler opened the Bellevue Hospital School of Nursing, the first to train women as professional nurses.^[14] After completing training, some female nurses worked in hospitals, but most worked in field tents.

Women who joined the armed forces participated in every military field except combat. One thousand female pilots joined the Women Airforce Service Pilots, one hundred and forty thousand women joined the Women's Army Corps and one hundred thousand women joined the U.S. Navy as nurses and administrative staff.^[15]

Two million women held office jobs during World War II, which offered job security because they had become "feminized".^[16]

Life in the working world

A typical job sought by working women was that of a telephone operator or Hello Girl. The Hello Girls began as women who operated on telephone switchboards during the first world war by answering telephones and talking to impatient callers in a calming tone.^[17] The workers would sit on stools facing a wall with hundreds of outlets and tiny blinking lights. The women had to work quickly when a light flashed by plugging the cord into the proper outlet. Despite the difficult work, many women wanted this job because it paid five dollars a week and provided a rest lounge for the employees to take a break.^[25]

Female secretaries were also popular. They were instructed to be efficient, tough, and hardworking while also appearing soft, accommodating, and subservient.^[18] Women were expected to be the protector and partner to their boss behind closed doors and a helpmate in public. These women were encouraged to go to charm schools and express their personality through fashion instead of furthering their education.^[18]

Teachers in primary and secondary schools remained female, although as the war progressed, women began to move on to better employment and higher salaries.^[20] In 1940, teaching positions paid less than $1,500 a year and fell to $800 in rural areas.^[20]

Women scientists found it hard to gain appointments at universities. Women scientists were forced to take positions in high schools, state or women's colleges, governmental agencies and alternative institutions such as libraries or museums.^[32] Women who took jobs at such places often did clerical duties and though some held professional positions, these boundaries were blurred.^[32]

Mostly women were hired as librarians who had been professionalized and feminized. In 1920, women accounted for 88% of librarians in the United States.^[32]

Two-thirds of the American Geographical Society (AGS)'s employees were women, who served as librarians, editorial personnel in the publishing programs, secretaries, research editors, copy editors, proofreaders, research assistants and sales staff. These women came with credentials from well-known colleges and universities and many were overqualified for their positions, but later were promoted to more prestigious positions.

Although female employees did not receive equal pay, they did get sabbaticals to attend university and to travel for their professions at the cost of the AGS.^[21] Those women working managerial and library or museums positions made an impact on women in the work force, but still encountered discrimination when they tried to advance.

In the 1940s, clerical work expanded to occupy the largest number of women employees, this field diversified as it moved into commercial service.^[22] The average worker in the 1940s was over 35 years old, married, and needed to work to keep their families afloat.^[23]

During the 1950s, women were taught that marriage and domesticity were more important than a career. Most women followed this path because of the uncertainty of the post-war years.^[24] Suburban housewives were encouraged to have hobbies like bread making and sewing. The 1950s housewife was in conflict between being "just a housewife" because their upbringing taught them competition and achievement. Many women had furthered their education deriving a sense of self-worth.^[25]

Pay

A single woman working in a factory in the early 20th century earned less than $8 a week, which is equivalent to roughly less that $98 dollars a week today.^[26] If the woman was absent or was late, employers penalized them by docking their pay.^[27] These women would live in boarding houses costing $1.50 a week, waking at 5:30 a.m. to start their ten-hour work day. When women entered the paid workforce in the 1920s they were paid less than men because employers thought the women's jobs were temporary. Employers also paid women less than men because they believed in the "Pin Money Theory", which said that women's earnings were secondary to that of their male counterparts. With this being said, women took typical jobs that were "considerably less substantial than their husbands' in terms of both the average number of hours worked per week as well as continuity over time".^[28] However, working women still experienced stress and overload because they were still responsible for the majority of the housework and taking care of the children. This left women isolated and subjected them to their husband's control.^[28]

In the early 1900s women's pay was one to three dollars a week and much of that went to living expenses.^[29] In the 1900s female tobacco strippers earned five dollars a week, half of what their male coworkers made and seamstresses made six to seven dollars a week compared to a cutter's salary of $16.^[30] This differed from women working in factories in the 1900s as they were paid by the piece, not receiving a fixed weekly wage.^[31] Those that were pinching pennies pushed themselves to produce more product so that they earned more money.^[31] Women who earned enough to live on found it impossible to keep their salary rate from being reduced because bosses often made "mistakes" in computing a worker's piece rate.^[32] As well as this, women who received this kind of treatment did not disagree for fear of losing their jobs. Employers would frequently deduct pay for work they deemed imperfect and for simply trying to lighten the mood by laughing or talking while they worked.^[32] In the 1937 a woman's average yearly salary was $525 compared to a man's salary of $1,027.^[30] In the 1940s two-thirds of the women who were in the labor force suffered a decrease in earnings; the average weekly paychecks fell from $50 to $37.^[21] This gap in wage stayed consistent, as women in 1991 only earned seventy percent of what men earned regardless of their education.^[33]

Later on in the 1970s and 1980s as women began to fight for equality, they fought against discrimination in jobs where women worked and the educational institutions that would lead to those jobs.^[33] In 1973 the average salaries for women were 57% compared to those of men, but this gender earnings gap was especially noticeable in pink-collar jobs where the largest number of women were employed.^[34] Women were given routine, less responsible jobs available and often with a lower pay than men. These jobs were monotonous and mechanical often with assembly-line procedures.^[35]

In 1975, a study was carried out that examined the pay differences between single and married women. It was found that married women made substantially less than single women, as single women made up to 97% of what a single man would make and married women would only make up to 62% of married men's pay.^[36] This was found to potentially be because of taking maternity leaves, as less work related experience would be gained in the time that these women left to care for their children, leading to less investment from the company.^[37] It was also found that women now are more likely to join or re-join the work force after having children, rather than the traditional role of becoming a stay at home mother.^[36]

Education

Women entering the workforce had difficulty finding a satisfactory job without references or an education.^[38] However, opportunities for higher education expanded as women were admitted to all-male schools like the United States service academies and Ivy League strongholds.^[39] Education became a way for society to shape women into its ideal housewife. In the 1950s, authorities and educators encouraged college because they found new value in vocational training for domesticity.^[40] College prepared women for future roles because while men and women were taught together, they were groomed for different paths after they graduated.^[41] Education started out as a way to teach women how to be a good wife, but education also allowed women to broaden their minds.

Being educated was an expectation for women entering the paying workforce, despite the fact that their male equivalents did not need a high school diploma.^[42] While in college, a woman would experience extracurricular activities, such as a sorority, that offered a separate space for the woman to practice types of social service work that was expected from her.^[43]

However, not all of a woman's education was done in the classroom. Women were also educated through their peers through "dating". Men and women no longer had to be supervised when alone together. Dating allowed men and women to practice the paired activities that would later become a way of life.^[43]

New women's organizations sprouted up working to reform and protect women in the workplace. The largest and most prestigious of these organizations was The General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC), whose members were conservative middle-class housewives. The International Ladies Garment Workers Union (ILGWU) was formed after women shirtwaist makers went on strike in New York City in 1909. It started as a small walkout, with a handful of members from one shop and grew to a force of ten of thousands, changing the course of the labor movement forever. In 1910 women allied themselves with the Progressive Party who sought to reform social issues.

Another organization that grew out of women in the workforce, was the Women's Bureau of the Department of Labor. The Women's Bureau regulated conditions for women employees. As female labor became a crucial part of the economy, efforts by the Women's Bureau increased. The Bureau pushed for employers to take advantage of "women-power" and persuaded women to enter the employment market.

In 1913 the ILGWU signed the well-known "protocol in the Dress and Waist Industry" which was the first contract between labor and management settled by outside negotiators. The contract formalized the trade's division of labor by gender.

Another win for women came in 1921 when congress passed the Sheppard-Towner Act, a welfare measure intended to reduce infant and maternal mortality; it was the first federally funded healthcare act. The act provided federal funds to establish health centers for prenatal and child care. Expectant mothers and children could receive health checkups and health advice.

In 1963 the Equal Pay Act was passed making it the first federal law against sex discrimination, equal pay for equal work, and made employers hire women workers if they qualified from the start.

Unions also became a major outlet for women to fight against the unfair treatment they experienced. Women who joined these types of unions stayed before and after work to talk about the benefits of the union, collect dues, obtain charters, and form bargaining committees.

The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was approved in May 1933. The NRA negotiated codes designed to rekindle production. It raised wages, shortened workers' hours, and increased employment for the first time maximizing hour and minimizing wage provisions benefiting female workers. The NRA had its flaws however, it only covered half of the women in the workforce particularly manufacturing and trade. The NRA regulated working conditions only for women with a job and did not offer any relief for the two million unemployed women who desperately needed it.

The 1930s proved successful for women in the workplace thanks to federal relief programs and the growth of unions. For the first time women were not completely dependent on themselves, in 1933 the federal government expanded in its responsibility to female workers. In 1938 the Fair Labor Standards Act grew out of several successful strikes. Two million women joined the workforce during the Great Depression despite negative public opinion.

Pink ghetto

"Pink ghetto" is a term used to refer to jobs dominated by women. The term was coined in 1983 to describe the limits women have in furthering their careers, since the jobs are often dead-end, stressful and underpaid. The term pink ghetto is just simply another way of describing pink-collar work. Pink ghetto was more commonly used in the early years, when women were finally able to work. Pink-collar work became the popular term once it was popularized by Louise Kapp Howe, a writer and social critic, in the 1970s.

Male integration

Scholars such as Judy Wajcman argue that technology has long been monopolized by men and is a great source of their power historically.^[47] However, more millennial men are doing pink collar work because technology is affecting blue collar work. Machines are able to perform many of the tasks that were typically gendered male within factories. In a 1990 study conducted by Allan H. Hunt and Timothy L. Hunt, they examined how industrial robots would impact both the creation of jobs as well as job displacement among unskilled workers in the United States. It was concluded that the impact of unemployment due to the spread of robotics would be felt the greatest by uneducated, unskilled blue-collar workers. New technology in the form of robotics eliminates many semi or unskilled jobs, and has taken traditional men filled roles away from the job market.^[48] Judy Wajman maintains that skills involving machines and strength are associated with masculinity.^[49] This means that the least technical jobs (pink-collar) jobs are associated with women. These machines designed by men, using the technology they have always monopolized, are now displacing them and forcing them into feminized pink-collar work.

It was found as well that men going into traditionally claimed pink collar jobs are felt discriminated and threatened in their jobs.^[50] Men going into positions such as teaching, nursing and childcare faced many negative stereotypes in these lines of work, as men have traditionally been viewed as stern, strong and holding dominant attitudes. This stereotype about men negatively impacts men in these lines of work, as it is expected that a woman with the same position would be more nurturing, caring and well suited for the work.^[50]

See also

• Blue-collar worker
• Designation of workers by collar color
• Office lady
• White-collar worker

Notes

Bibliography

• Gourley, Catherine (2008). Gibson Girls and Suffragists: Perceptions of Women from 1900 to 1918 (Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books) {{ISBN|978-0-8225-7150-6}}
• Humowitz, Carol; Weissman, Michelle (1978). A History of Women in America (New York: Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith) {{ISBN|0-553-20762-8}}
• {{cite book |title=Holding Their Own |last=Ware |first=Susan |year=1982 |publisher=G.K. Hall & Co |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-8057-9900-2}}
• {{cite book |title=Women and the American Experience |last=Woloch |first=Nancy |year=1984 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location= New York |isbn=978-0-394-53515-9}}

External links

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20050505194045/http://bartleby.com/61/52/P0315200.html The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition]
• link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Workers in the Pink Collar Market Place
• [https://www.census.gov/Press-Release/cb98-181.htm{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Census Bureau, Measuring 50 Years of Economic Change]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090209072059/http://www.womenwork.org/policy/factwomenwork.htm Women Work! Women in the Workforce]
• Statistics on Women
• 9to5, National Association of Working Women