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词条 Pioneer 11
释义

  1. Mission background

     History  Spacecraft design  Attitude control and propulsion  Communications  Power  Computer  Scientific instruments 

  2. Mission profile

     Launch and trajectory  Encounter with Jupiter  Saturn encounter  Interstellar mission  NASA ends operations 

  3. Current status

  4. Pioneer anomaly

  5. Pioneer plaque

  6. Commemoration

  7. Gallery

  8. See also

  9. References

  10. External links

{{italic title}}{{Infobox spaceflight
| name = Pioneer 11
| image =
| image_caption = An artist's impression of a Pioneer spacecraft on its way to interstellar space.
| mission_type = Planetary and heliosphere exploration
| operator = NASA / ARC
| website = [https://web.archive.org/web/20041105100336/http://spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_Projects/pioneer/PNhome.html Pioneer Project website](archived)
NASA Archive page
| COSPAR_ID = 1973-019A
| SATCAT = 6421
| mission_duration = 22 years, 5 months, 25 days
| spacecraft_type =
| manufacturer = TRW
| dry_mass =
| launch_mass = {{convert|259|kg|lb}}
| power = 155 watts (at launch)
| launch_date = {{start-date|April 6, 1973, 02:11:00|timezone=yes}} UTC
| launch_rocket = {{nowrap|Atlas SLV-3D Centaur-D1A Star-37E}}
| launch_site = Cape Canaveral LC-36B
| launch_contractor =
| last_contact = {{end-date|September 30, 1995}}
|interplanetary =
|type = flyby
|object = Jupiter
|distance = {{convert|43000|km|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}}
|arrival_date = December 3, 1974
 }} {{Infobox spaceflight/IP

|type = flyby
|object = Saturn
|distance = {{convert|21000|km|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}}
|arrival_date = September 1, 1979
| insignia = Pioneer 10 - Pioneer 11 - mission patch - Pioneer patch.png
| insignia_caption =
| insignia_alt =
| insignia_size = 120
| programme = Pioneer
| previous_mission = Pioneer 10
| next_mission = Pioneer 12
}}Pioneer 11 (also known as Pioneer G) is a {{convert|259|kg|lb|adj=mid}} robotic space probe launched by NASA on April 6, 1973 to study the asteroid belt, the environment around Jupiter and Saturn, solar wind and cosmic rays.[1] It was the first probe to encounter Saturn and the second to fly through the asteroid belt and by Jupiter. Thereafter, Pioneer 11 became the second of five artificial objects to achieve the escape velocity that will allow them to leave the Solar System. Due to power constraints and the vast distance to the probe, the last routine contact with the spacecraft was on September 30, 1995, and the last good engineering data was received on November 24, 1995.[1][2]

Mission background

History

Approved in February 1969, Pioneer 11 and its twin probe, Pioneer 10, were the first to be designed for exploring the outer Solar System. Yielding to multiple proposals throughout the 1960s, early mission objectives were defined as:

  • Explore the interplanetary medium beyond the orbit of Mars
  • Investigate the nature of the asteroid belt from the scientific standpoint and assess the belt's possible hazard to missions to the outer planets.
  • Explore the environment of Jupiter.

Subsequent planning for an encounter with Saturn added many more goals:

  • Map the magnetic field of Saturn and determine its intensity, direction, and structure.
  • Determine how many electrons and protons of various energies are distributed along the trajectory of the spacecraft through the Saturn system.
  • Map the interaction of the Saturn system with the solar wind.
  • Measure the temperature of Saturn's atmosphere and that of Titan, the largest satellite of Saturn.
  • Determine the structure of the upper atmosphere of Saturn where molecules are expected to be electrically charged and form an ionosphere.
  • Map the thermal structure of Saturn's atmosphere by infrared observations coupled with radio occultation data.
  • Obtain spin-scan images of the Saturnian system in two colors during the encounter sequence and polarimetry measurements of the planet.
  • Probe the ring system and the atmosphere of Saturn with S-band radio occultation.
  • Determine more precisely the masses of Saturn and its larger satellites by accurate observations of the effects of their gravitational fields on the motion of the spacecraft.
  • As a precursor to the Mariner Jupiter/Saturn mission, verify the environment of the ring plane to find out where it may be safely crossed by the Mariner spacecraft without serious damage.[3]

Pioneer 11 was built by TRW and managed as part of the Pioneer program by NASA Ames Research Center.[4] A backup unit, Pioneer H, is currently on display in the "Milestones of Flight" exhibit at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C..[5] Many elements of the mission proved to be critical in the planning of the Voyager program.[6]{{rp|266–8}}

Spacecraft design

The Pioneer 11 bus measured {{convert|36|cm|in|sp=us}} deep and with six {{convert|76|cm|in|sp=us|adj=mid|-long}} panels forming the hexagonal structure. The bus housed propellant to control the orientation of the probe and eight of the twelve scientific instruments. The spacecraft had a mass of 260 kilograms.[1]{{rp|42}}

Attitude control and propulsion

{{Css Image Crop|Image= Pioneer 10 - Pioneer 11 - thrusters - p43.jpg|bSize= 339|cWidth= 75|cHeight= 75|oTop= 15|oLeft= 0|Location= right}}

Orientation of the spacecraft was maintained with six 4.5-N,[7] hydrazine monopropellant thrusters: pair one maintained a constant spin-rate of 4.8 rpm, pair two controlled the forward thrust, pair three controlled attitude. Information for the orientation was provided by performing conical scanning maneuvers to track Earth in its orbit,[8] a star sensor able to reference Canopus, and two Sun sensors.[1]{{rp|42–43}}

Communications

The space probe included a redundant system transceivers, one attached to the high-gain antenna, the other to an omni-antenna and medium-gain antenna. Each transceiver was 8 watts and transmitted data across the S-band using 2110 MHz for the uplink from Earth and 2292 MHz for the downlink to Earth with the Deep Space Network tracking the signal. Prior to transmitting data, the probe used a convolutional encoder to allow correction of errors in the received data on Earth.[1]{{rp|43}}

Power

Pioneer 11 used four SNAP-19 radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) (see diagram). They were positioned on two three-rod trusses, each {{convert|3|m|ftin|abbr=off|sp=us}} in length and 120 degrees apart. This was expected to be a safe distance from the sensitive scientific experiments carried on board. Combined, the RTGs provided 155 watts at launch, and decayed to 140 W in transit to Jupiter. The spacecraft required 100 W to power all systems.[1]{{rp|44–45}}

Computer

Much of the computation for the mission was performed on Earth and transmitted to the probe, where it was able to retain in memory, up to five commands of the 222 possible entries by ground controllers. The spacecraft included two command decoders and a command distribution unit, a very limited form of processor, to direct operations on the spacecraft. This system required that mission operators prepare commands long in advance of transmitting them to the probe. A data storage unit was included to record up to 6,144 bytes of information gathered by the instruments. The digital telemetry unit would then be used to prepare the collected data in one of the thirteen possible formats before transmitting it back to Earth.[1]{{rp|38}}

Scientific instruments

Pioneer had one additional instrument more than Pioneer 10, a flux-gate magnetometer.[9]

Included an unfocused Cerenkov counter that detected the light emitted in a particular direction as particles passed through it recording electrons of energy, 0.5 to 12 MeV, an electron scatter detector for electrons of energy, 100 to 400 keV, and a minimum ionizing detector consisting of a solid-state diode that measured minimum ionizing particles (<3 MeV) and protons in the range of 50 to 350 MeV.[15]

  • {{small|Principal investigator: R. Fillius / University of California San Diego}}{{sfn|Simpson|2001|p=146}}
  • {{small|Data: NSSDC hourly data archive, NSSDC Saturn data archive}}
Helium Vector Magnetometer (HVM)
Measured the fine structure of the interplanetary magnetic field, mapped the Jovian magnetic field, and provided magnetic field measurements to evaluate solar wind interaction with Jupiter.[10]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: Edward Smith / JPL}}
  • {{small|1=Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive}}
Quadrispherical Plasma Analyzer
Peered through a hole in the large dish-shaped antenna to detect particles of the solar wind originating from the Sun.[11]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: Aaron Barnes / NASA Ames Research Center ([https://web.archive.org/web/20000520044455/http://arwen.arc.nasa.gov/ archived website])}}{{sfn|Simpson|2001|p=146}}
  • {{small|1=Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive}}
Charged Particle Instrument (CPI)
Detected cosmic rays in the Solar System.[12]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: John Simpson / University of Chicago}}{{sfn|Simpson|2001|p=146}}
  • {{small|Data: NSSDC data archive}}
Cosmic Ray Telescope (CRT)
Collected data on the composition of the cosmic ray particles and their energy ranges.[13]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: Frank B. McDonald / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center}}{{sfn|Simpson|2001|p=146}}
  • {{small|1=Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive}}
Geiger Tube Telescope (GTT)
}}Surveyed the intensities, energy spectra, and angular distributions of electrons and protons along the spacecraft's path through the radiation belts of Jupiter and Saturn.[14]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: James A. Van Allen / University of Iowa (website)}}{{sfn|Simpson|2001|p=146}}
  • {{small|1=Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive, NSSDC Jupiter data archive}}
Trapped Radiation Detector (TRD)
Meteoroid Detectors
Twelve panels of pressurized cell detectors mounted on the back of the main dish antenna recorded penetrating impacts of small meteoroids.[16]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: William Kinard / NASA Langley Research Center}}{{sfn|Simpson|2001|p=146}}
  • {{small|1=Data: NSSDC data archive list}}
Asteroid/Meteoroid Detector (AMD)
Meteoroid-asteroid detector looked into space with four non-imaging telescopes to track particles ranging from close-by bits of dust to distant large asteroids.[17]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: Robert Soberman / General Electric Company}}{{sfn|Simpson|2001|p=146}}
  • {{small|1=Data: NSSDC data archive list}}
Ultraviolet Photometer
Ultraviolet light was sensed to determine the quantities of hydrogen and helium in space and on Jupiter and Saturn.[18]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: Darrell Judge / University of Southern California}}{{sfn|Simpson|2001|p=146}}
  • {{small|1=Data: PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive}}
Imaging Photopolarimeter (IPP)
The imaging experiment relied upon the spin of the spacecraft to sweep a small telescope across the planet in narrow strips only 0.03 degrees wide, looking at the planet in red and blue light. These strips were then processed to build up a visual image of the planet.[19]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: Tom Gehrels / University of Arizona}}{{sfn|Simpson|2001|p=146}}
  • {{small|1=Data: NSSDC data archive list}}
Infrared Radiometer
Provided information on cloud temperature and the output of heat from Jupiter and Saturn.[20]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: Andrew Ingersoll / California Institute of Technology}}{{sfn|Simpson|2001|p=146}}
Triaxial Fluxgate Magnetometer
Measured the magnetic fields of both Jupiter and Saturn. This instrument was not carried on Pioneer 10.[21]
  • {{small|Principal investigator: Mario Acuna / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center}}
  • {{small|1=Data: NSSDC data archive list}}

Mission profile

Timeline of travel
DateEvent
1973-04-06}} Spacecraft launched at 02:11:00.
1974-04-19}} Passage through the asteroid belt.
1974-11-03}} Start Jupiter observation phase.
TimeEvent
1974-12-02}} Encounter with Jovian system.
08:21:00}} Callisto flyby at 786,500 km.
22:09:00}} Ganymede flyby at 692,300 km.
1974-12-03}}
03:11:00}} Io flyby at 314,000 km.
04:15:00}} Europa flyby at 586,700 km.
05:00:21}} Jupiter shadow entry.
05:01:01}} Jupiter occultation entry.
05:21:19}} Jupiter closest approach at 42,828 km.
05:33:52}} Jupiter shadow exit.
05:43:03}} Jupiter occultation exit.
22:29:00}} Amalthea flyby at 127,500 km.
1975-01-01}} Phase stop.
1979-07-31}} Start Saturn observation phase.
TimeEvent
1979-08-29}} Encounter with Saturnian system.
06:06:10}} Iapetus flyby at 1,032,535 km.
11:53:33}} Phoebe flyby at 13,713,574 km.
1979-08-31}}
12:32:33}} Hyperion flyby at 666,153 km.
1979-09-01}}
14:26:56}} Descending ring plane crossing.
14:50:55}} Epimetheus flyby at 6,676 km.
15:06:32}} Atlas flyby at 45,960 km.
15:59:30}} Dione flyby at 291,556 km.
16:26:28}} Mimas flyby at 104,263 km.
16:29:34}} Saturn closest approach at 20,591 km.
16:35:00}} Saturn occultation entry.
16:35:57}} Saturn shadow entry.
16:51:11}} Janus flyby at 228,988 km.
17:53:32}} Saturn occultation exit.
17:54:47}} Saturn shadow exit.
18:21:59}} Ascending ring plane crossing.
18:25:34}} Tethys flyby at 329,197 km.
18:30:14}} Enceladus flyby at 222,027 km.
20:04:13}} Calypso flyby at 109,916 km.
22:15:27}} Rhea flyby at 345,303 km.
1979-09-02}}
18:00:33}} Titan flyby at 362,962 km.
1979-10-05}} Phase stop.
1979-10-05}} Begin Pioneer Interstellar Mission.
[22]{{rp|61–94}}[23][24]

Launch and trajectory

The Pioneer 11 probe was launched on April 6, 1973 at 02:11:00 UTC, by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from Space Launch Complex 36A at Cape Canaveral, Florida aboard an Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle. Its twin probe, Pioneer 10, had launched a year earlier on March 3, 1972. Pioneer 11 was launched on a trajectory directly aimed at Jupiter without any prior gravitational assists.[25] In May 1974, Pioneer was retargeted to fly past Jupiter on a north-south trajectory enabling a Saturn flyby in 1979. The maneuver used 17 pounds of propellant, lasted 42 minutes and 36 seconds and increased Pioneer 11's speed by 230 km/h.[26] It also made two mid-course corrections, on April 11, 1973 and November 7, 1974.[2]

Encounter with Jupiter

{{main|Exploration of Jupiter}}Pioneer 11 flew past Jupiter in November and December 1974. During its closest approach, on December 2, it passed {{convert|42,828|km|mi|sp=us}} above the cloud tops.[23] The probe obtained detailed images of the Great Red Spot, transmitted the first images of the immense polar regions, and determined the mass of Jupiter's moon Callisto. Using the gravitational pull of Jupiter, a gravity assist was used to alter the trajectory of the probe towards Saturn. On April 16, 1975, following the Jupiter encounter, the micrometer detector was turned off.[2]{{Gallery|align=center|width=175|lines=2
|File:P11C06.jpg|alt1=Pioneer 11 Jupiter encounter |{{small|Pioneer 11 Jupiter encounter}}
|File:Pioneer f12.gif|alt2=Approach on Jupiter |{{small|Approach on Jupiter}}
|File:Pioneer f18.gif|alt3=The Great Red Spot imaged by Pioneer 11 |{{small|The Great Red Spot imaged by Pioneer 11}}
|File:P11C03.jpg|alt4=The Great Red Spot prior to closest approach |{{small|The Great Red Spot prior to closest approach}}
}}{{Gallery|align=center|width=150|lines=2
|File:Pioneer f08.gif|alt1=Cloud bands along the edge of Jupiter |{{small|Cloud bands along the edge of Jupiter}}
|File:Pioneer f15.gif|alt2=Beginning polar gravity assist |{{small|Beginning polar gravity assist}}
|File:Pioneer 11 - Jupiter - p176.jpg|alt3=Jupiter polar region from 1,079,000 km |{{small|Jupiter polar region from 1,079,000 km}}
|File:Pioneer11 Io.gif|alt4=Io imaged from 756,000 km |{{small|Io imaged from 756,000 km}}
|footer={{center|{{commons-inline|bullet=none|Category:Photos of Jupiter by Pioneer 11|Pioneer 11 Jupiter encounter}}}}
}}

Saturn encounter

Pioneer 11 passed by Saturn on September 1, 1979, at a distance of 21,000 km from Saturn's cloud tops.

By this time Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 had already passed Jupiter and were also en route to Saturn, so it was decided to target Pioneer 11 to pass through the Saturn ring plane at the same position that the soon-to-come Voyager probes would use in order to test the route before the Voyagers arrived. If there were faint ring particles that could damage a probe in that area, mission planners felt it was better to learn about it via Pioneer. Thus, Pioneer 11 was acting as a "pioneer" in a true sense of the word; if danger were detected, then the Voyager probes could be rerouted further away from the rings, but missing the opportunity to visit Uranus and Neptune in the process.

Pioneer 11 imaged and nearly collided with one of Saturn's small moons, passing at a distance of no more than {{convert|4000|km|mi|sp=us}}. The object was tentatively identified as Epimetheus, a moon discovered the previous day from Pioneer{{'}}s imaging, and suspected from earlier observations by Earth-based telescopes. After the Voyager flybys, it became known that there are two similarly-sized moons (Epimetheus and Janus) in the same orbit, so there is some uncertainty about which one was the object of Pioneer's near-miss. Pioneer 11 encountered Janus on September 1, 1979 at 14:52 UTC at a distance of 2500 km and Mimas at 16:20 UTC the same day at 103000 km.

Besides Epimetheus, instruments located another previously undiscovered small moon and an additional ring, charted Saturn's magnetosphere and magnetic field and found its planet-size moon, Titan, to be too cold for life. Hurtling underneath the ring plane, the probe sent back pictures of Saturn's rings. The rings, which normally seem bright when observed from Earth, appeared dark in the Pioneer pictures, and the dark gaps in the rings seen from Earth appeared as bright rings.

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=175 |lines=1
|File:P11F81.jpg|alt1=Pioneer 11 image of Saturn (image F81). Taken on 1979/08/26, showing the satellite Rhea |{{small|Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/08/26}}
|File:P11saturn.jpg|alt2=Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/09/01 |{{small|Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/09/01}}
|File:P11saturnb.jpg|alt3=Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/09/01 |{{small|Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/09/01}}
|File:P11g21.jpg|alt4=Outgoing Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/09/03 |{{small|Outgoing Pioneer 11 image of Saturn taken on 1979/09/03}}
|File:Pntitan.jpg|alt5=Pioneer 11 image of Titan|{{small|Pioneer 11 image of Saturn's moon Titan}}
|footer = {{center|{{commons-inline|bullet=none|Category:Photos of Saturn by Pioneer 11|Pioneer 11 Saturn encounter}}}}
}}

Interstellar mission

On February 25, 1990, Pioneer 11 became the 4th man-made object to pass beyond the orbit of the planets.[27]

NASA ends operations

By 1995, Pioneer 11 could no longer power any of its detectors, so the decision was made to shut it down.[28] On September 29, 1995, NASA's Ames Research Center, responsible for managing the project, issued a press release that began, "After nearly 22 years of exploration out to the farthest reaches of the Solar System, one of the most durable and productive space missions in history will come to a close." It indicated NASA would use its Deep Space Network antennas to listen "once or twice a month" for the spacecraft's signal, until "some time in late 1996" when "its transmitter will fall silent altogether." NASA Administrator Daniel Goldin characterized Pioneer 11 as "the little spacecraft that could, a venerable explorer that has taught us a great deal about the Solar System and, in the end, about our own innate drive to learn. Pioneer 11 is what NASA is all about – exploration beyond the frontier."[29] Besides announcing the end of operations, the dispatch provided a historical list of Pioneer 11 mission achievements. NASA terminated routine contact with the spacecraft on September 30, 1995, but continued to make contact for about 2 hours every 2 to 4 weeks.[28] Scientists received a few minutes of good engineering data on 24 November 1995 but then lost final contact once Earth permanently moved out of view of the spacecraft's antenna.[2] Its signal became too faint to hear in 2002.[30]

Current status

On January 30, 2019, Pioneer 11 was {{Convert|100.84|AU|km mi|abbr=on}} from the Earth and {{Convert|100|AU|km mi|abbr=on}} from the Sun; and traveling at {{Convert|11.241|km/s|kph mph|abbr=on}} (relative to the Sun) and traveling outward at about 2.37 AU per year.[31] The spacecraft is heading in the direction of the constellation Scutum near the current position (August 2017) RA 18h 50m dec -8° 39.5' (J2000.0) close to Messier 26.

Pioneer 11 has now been overtaken by the two Voyager probes, launched in 1977, and Voyager 1 is now the most distant object built by humans.[32]

Pioneer anomaly

{{Main|Pioneer anomaly}}

Analysis of the radio tracking data from the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft at distances between 20–70 AU from the Sun has consistently indicated the presence of a small but anomalous Doppler frequency drift. The drift can be interpreted as due to a constant acceleration of {{nowrap|(8.74 ± 1.33) × 10−10 m/s2}} directed towards the Sun. Although it is suspected that there is a systematic origin to the effect, none was found. As a result, there is sustained interest in the nature of this so-called "Pioneer anomaly".[33] Extended analysis of mission data by Slava Turyshev and colleagues has determined the source of the anomaly to be asymmetric thermal radiation and the resulting thermal recoil force acting on the face of the Pioneers away from the Sun,[34] and in July 2012 the group of researchers published their results in the Physical Review Letters scientific journal.[35]

Pioneer plaque

{{Main|Pioneer plaque}}Pioneer 10 and 11 both carry a gold-anodized aluminum plaque in the event that either spacecraft is ever found by intelligent lifeforms from other planetary systems. The plaques feature the nude figures of a human male and female along with several symbols that are designed to provide information about the origin of the spacecraft.[36]

Commemoration

In 1991, Pioneer 11 was honored on one of 10 United States Postage Service stamps commemorating unmanned spacecraft exploring each of the then nine planets and the Moon. Pioneer 11 was the spacecraft featured with Jupiter. Pluto was listed as "Not yet explored".[37]

Gallery

{{multiple images |align=center |direction=horizontal |header= |width= |image1=Pioneer 11 Saturn Rings.png |caption1=Pioneer 11 and Saturn rings on September 1, 1979
(artist concept) |width1=330 |image2=An artist's impression of the encounter between Pioneer 11 and Saturn.jpg |caption2=Pioneer 11{{'}}s flyby of Saturn
(artist concept)|width2=370 |image3=Pio11 8feb2012.jpg |caption3=Position of Pioneer 11 as of 8 February 2012 showing spacecraft trajectory since launch (simulated view) |width3=153 |footer= }}

See also

{{interstellar_probes_trajectory.svg}}{{Portal|Spaceflight}}{{clear right}}

References

1. ^http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html
2. ^1 2 3 {{cite web|title=Pioneer 11: In Depth|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pioneer11/indepth|accessdate=10 December 2017}}
3. ^Mark, Hans: [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch5.htm Pioneer Odyssey SP-349/396, Chapter 5, NASA-Ames Research Center, 1974]
4. ^NASA - The Pioneer Missions
5. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal100/index.cfm#pioneer10|title=Milestones of Flight|publisher=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum}}
6. ^William E. Burrows, Exploring Space, (New York: Random House, 1990)
7. ^{{cite encyclopedia | last = Wade | first = Mark | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Astronautica | title = Pioneer 10-11 | url = http://astronautix.com/craft/pior1011.htm | accessdate = 2011-02-08 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20101120084730/http://astronautix.com/craft/pior1011.htm | archivedate = 2010-11-20 | df = }}
8. ^{{cite web| title = Weebau Spaceflight Encyclopedia| date = 9 November 2010| url = http://weebau.com/satplan/pioneer%2010.htm| accessdate = 12 January 2012}}
9. ^{{Cite web|url=http://solarviews.com/eng/pn10-11.htm|title=Pioneer 10 & 11|website=solarviews.com|access-date=2018-12-20}}
10. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1973-019A-08|title= Magnetic Fields|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
11. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1972-012A-13|title= Quadrispherical Plasma Analyzer|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
12. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1972-012A-02|title= Charged Particle Instrument (CPI)|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
13. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1972-012A-12|title= Cosmic-Ray Spectra|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
14. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1972-012A-11|title= Geiger Tube Telescope (GTT)|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
15. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1972-012A-05|title= Jovian Trapped Radiation|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
16. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1972-012A-04|title= Meteoroid Detectors|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
17. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1972-012A-03|title= Asteroid/Meteoroid Astronomy|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
18. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1972-012A-06|title= Ultraviolet Photometry|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
19. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1972-012A-07|title= Imaging Photopolarimeter (IPP)|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
20. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1972-012A-08|title= Infrared Radiometers|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2011-02-19}}
21. ^{{cite web |url= http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1973-019A-14|title= Jovian Magnetic Field|publisher= NASA / National Space Science Data Center|accessdate= 2013-09-24}}
22. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 {{cite book |title=Pioneer Odyssey |series=SP-349/396 |last1=Fimmel |first1=R. O. |last2=Swindell |first2=W. |last3=Burgess |first3=E. |location= Washington, D.C. |publisher=NASA-Ames Research Center |oclc=3211441 |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.htm |accessdate=9 January 2011}}
23. ^1 {{cite web | url = http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewMissionProfile.jsp?MISSION_NAME=PIONEER+11 | title = Pioneer 11 Mission Information | accessdate = 23 January 2011 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721052949/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewMissionProfile.jsp?MISSION_NAME=PIONEER+11 | archivedate = 21 July 2011 | df = }}
24. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.dmuller.net/spaceflight/mission.php?mission=pioneer11&appear=black&showimg=yes |title=Pioneer 11 Full Mission Timeline |last1=Muller |first1=Daniel |publisher=Daniel Muller |accessdate=9 January 2011}}
25. ^http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/images/739459main_ACD97-0036-2.jpg
26. ^{{cite magazine |last= |first= |date=9 May 1974 |title=Pioneer 11 Successfully Retargeted for Saturn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zTFpyBr4WvgC&pg=PA294 |magazine=New Scientist |location= |publisher= |access-date=5 December 2017 }}
27. ^{{cite news|title=Pioneer 11 Is Reported to Leave Solar System|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/02/25/us/pioneer-11-is-reported-to-leave-solar-system.html|accessdate=3 December 2017|date=25 February 1990}}
28. ^1 {{cite news|title=Farewell to a Pioneer|work=Science News|date=14 October 1995}}
29. ^{{cite web|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/text/pioneer-11_endops.txt|title=Pioneer 11 to End Operations after Epic Career|publisher= NASA / Ames Research Center|date=September 29, 1995|accessdate=August 7, 2011}}
30. ^{{cite web|last1=Howell|first1=Elizabeth|title=Pioneer 11: Up Close with Jupiter & Saturn|url=https://www.space.com/17785-pioneer-11.html|website=Space.com|accessdate=10 December 2017}}
31. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.theskylive.com/pioneer11-tracker |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-07-19 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721144043/http://theskylive.com/pioneer11-tracker |archivedate=2015-07-21 |df= }}
32. ^Where are the Voyagers
33. ^{{cite web | url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/mystery_monday_041018.html | accessdate=2011-06-07 | title=The Problem with Gravity: New Mission Would Probe Strange Puzzle | last=Britt | first=Robert Roy | date=October 18, 2004 | publisher=Space.com | quote=The discrepancy caused by the anomaly amounts to about {{convert|248500|mi|km|abbr=off}}, or roughly the distance between Earth and the Moon. That's how much farther the probes should have traveled in their 34 years, if our understanding of gravity is correct.}}
34. ^{{cite web| url=http://www.planetary.org/blog/article/00003459/ | accessdate=2012-04-20 | title=Pioneer Anomaly Solved! | publisher=The Planetary Society}}
35. ^Support for the thermal origin of the Pioneer anomaly, Slava G. Turyshev et al., Physical Review Letters, accepted 11 April 2012, accessed 19 July 2012
36. ^{{cite journal| doi=10.1126/science.175.4024.881| url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/175/4024/881.pdf | title=A Message from Earth | author=Carl Sagan | author2=Linda Salzman Sagan | author3=Frank Drake | last-author-amp=yes| journal=Science | volume= 175| issue=4024 | pages=881–884 | date= 1972-02-25| pmid=17781060 | bibcode=1972Sci...175..881S}} Paper on the background of the plaque. Pages available online: 1, 2, 3, 4
37. ^{{cite news|last1=Kronish|first1=Syd|title=Space Launches are Featured|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/69797194|accessdate=5 December 2017|date=27 October 1991}}

External links

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8 : Missions to Jupiter|Pioneer program|Missions to Saturn|1973 in spaceflight|Spacecraft escaping the Solar System|Derelict space probes|Spacecraft launched by Atlas-Centaur rockets|Spacecraft launched in 1973

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