“Ryan White”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Ryan Wayne White (December 6, 1971 – April 8, 1990)^[1] was an American teenager from Kokomo, Indiana, who became a national poster child for HIV/AIDS in the United States after failing to be re-admitted to school following a diagnosis of AIDS. As a hemophiliac, he became infected with HIV from a contaminated factor VIII blood treatment and, when diagnosed in December 1984, was given six months to live. Doctors said he posed no risk to other students, as AIDS is not an airborne disease and spreads solely through body fluids, but AIDS was poorly understood by the general public at the time. When White tried to return to school, many parents and teachers in Howard County rallied against his attendance due to concerns of the disease spreading through bodily fluid transfer. A lengthy administrative appeal process ensued, and news of the conflict turned Ryan into a popular celebrity and advocate for AIDS research and public education. Surprising his doctors, Ryan White lived five years longer than predicted. He died on April 8, 1990, one month before his high school graduation.

Before Ryan White, AIDS was a disease stigmatized as an illness impacting the gay community, because it was first diagnosed among gay men. That perception shifted as Ryan and other prominent straight HIV-infected people such as Magic Johnson, Arthur Ashe and the Ray brothers appeared in the media to advocate for more AIDS research and public education to address the epidemic. The U.S. Congress passed a major piece of AIDS legislation, the Ryan White CARE Act, shortly after White's death. The Act has been reauthorized twice; Ryan White Programs are the largest provider of services for people living with HIV/AIDS in the United States.

Early life and illness

Ryan White was born at St. Joseph Memorial Hospital in Kokomo, Indiana, to Hubert Wayne and Jeanne Elaine (Hale) White. When he was circumcised, the bleeding would not stop.^[2] When he was three days old,^[3] doctors diagnosed him with severe hemophilia A, a hereditary blood coagulation disorder associated with the X chromosome, which causes even minor injuries to result in severe bleeding. For treatment, he received weekly infusions of factor VIII, a blood product created from pooled plasma of non-hemophiliacs, an increasingly common treatment for hemophiliacs at the time.^[3]

Healthy for most of his childhood, White became extremely ill with pneumonia in December 1984. On December 17, 1984, during a lung biopsy, White was diagnosed with AIDS. By this time the scientific community had studied the epidemic in great detail. Earlier that year, HTLV-III was identified and isolated by American research scientists, confirming the work done by French research scientists who called it LAV. A lengthy public battle to determine who should be recognized as the discoverer of the human retro virus delayed development of a test for what would later be called HIV. White had apparently received a contaminated treatment of factor VIII that was infected with HIV, as did thousands of other Americans with hemophilia and hemophiliacs around the world. At that time, because the retrovirus that causes AIDS had been recently identified, much of the pooled factor VIII concentrate was tainted. Blood banks and pharmaceuticals dismissed calls by the CDC to use a Hepatitis B test as a surrogate until a HIV test could be developed. Late plasma products were screened and heat-treated to deactivate both HIV and Hepatitis. Among hemophiliacs treated with blood-clotting factors between 1979 and 1984, nearly 90% became infected with HIV and/or Hepatitis C.^[3] At the time of his diagnosis, his T-cell count had dropped to 25 (a healthy individual without HIV will have around 500–1200). Doctors predicted Ryan White had only six months to live.^[3]

After the diagnosis, White was too ill to return to school, but by early 1985 he began to feel better. His mother asked if he could return to school, but was told by school officials that he could not. On June 30, 1985, a formal request to permit re-admittance to school was denied by Western School Corporation superintendent James O. Smith, sparking an administrative appeal process that lasted for eight months.^[7]

Battle with schools

The means of transmission of HIV had not yet been fully resolved by the mid to late 1980s. Scientists knew it spread via blood and was not transmittable by any sort of casual contact, but as recently as 1983, the American Medical Association had thought that "Evidence Suggests Household Contact May Transmit AIDS", and the belief that the disease could easily spread persisted.^[18] Children with AIDS were still rare; at the time of White's rejection from school, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention knew of only 148 cases of pediatric AIDS in the United States.^[19] Many families in Kokomo believed his presence posed an unacceptable risk.^[25] When White was permitted to return to school for one day in February 1986, 151 of 360 students stayed home. He also worked as a paperboy, and many of the people on his route canceled their subscriptions, believing that HIV could be transmitted through newsprint.^[7]

The Indiana state health commissioner, Dr. Woodrow Myers, who had extensive experience treating AIDS patients in San Francisco, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention both notified the board that White posed no risk to other students, but the school board and many parents ignored their statements.^[20] In February 1986, The New England Journal of Medicine published a study of 101 people who had spent three months living in close but non-sexual contact with people with AIDS. The study concluded that the risk of infection was "minimal to nonexistent," even when contact included sharing toothbrushes, razors, clothing, combs and drinking glasses; sleeping in the same bed; and hugging and kissing.^[21]

When White was finally readmitted in April, a group of families withdrew their children and started an alternative school.^[22] Threats of violence and lawsuits persisted. According to White's mother, people on the street would often yell, "we know you're queer" at Ryan.^[25] The editors and publishers of the Kokomo Tribune, which supported White both editorially and financially, were also ridiculed by members of the community and threatened with death for their actions.^[23]

White attended Western Middle School for eighth grade for the entire 1986–87 school year, but was deeply unhappy and had few friends. The school required him to eat with disposable utensils, use separate bathrooms, and waived his requirement to enroll in a gym class.^[32] Threats continued. When a bullet was fired through the White's living room window (no one was home at the time), the family decided to leave Kokomo.^[3] After finishing the school year, his family moved to Cicero, Indiana, where he enrolled at Hamilton Heights High School, in Arcadia, Indiana. On August 31, 1987, a "very nervous" White was greeted by school principal Tony Cook, school system superintendent Bob G. Carnal, and a handful of students who had been educated about AIDS and were unafraid to shake Ryan's hand.^[24]

National spokesman

The publicity of Ryan White's story catapulted him into the national spotlight, amidst a growing wave of AIDS coverage in the news media. Between 1985 and 1987, the number of news stories about AIDS in the American media doubled.^[35] While isolated in middle school, White appeared frequently on national television and in newspapers to discuss his tribulations with the disease. Eventually, he became known as a poster child for the AIDS crisis, appearing in fundraising and educational campaigns for the syndrome. White participated in numerous public benefits for children with AIDS. Many celebrities appeared with him, starting during his trial and continuing for the rest of his life, to help publicly destigmatize socializing with people with AIDS. Singers John Mellencamp, Elton John and Michael Jackson, actor Matt Frewer, diver Greg Louganis, President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan, Surgeon General Dr. C. Everett Koop, Indiana University basketball coach Bobby Knight and basketball player Kareem Abdul-Jabbar all befriended White. He also was a friend to many children with AIDS or other potentially debilitating conditions.^[3]

For the rest of his life, White appeared frequently on Phil Donahue's talk show. His celebrity crush, Alyssa Milano of the then-popular TV show Who's the Boss?, met White and gave him a friendship bracelet and a kiss.^[25] Elton John loaned Jeanne White $16,500 to put toward a down payment on the Cicero home, and rather than accept repayment, placed the repaid money into a college fund for White's sister.^[26] In high school, White drove a red 1988 Ford Mustang GT, a gift from Michael Jackson.^[39] Despite the fame and donations, Ryan White stated that he disliked the public spotlight, loathed remarks that seemingly blamed his mother or his upbringing for his illness, and emphasized that he would be willing at any moment to trade his fame for freedom from the disease.^[39]

In 1988, Ryan White spoke before the President's Commission on the AIDS Epidemic. Ryan White told the commission of the discrimination he had faced when he first tried to return to school, but how education about the disease had made him welcome in the town of Cicero. Ryan White emphasized his differing experiences in Kokomo and Cicero as an example of the power and importance of AIDS education.^[27]

In 1989, ABC aired the television movie The Ryan White Story, starring Lukas Haas as Ryan, Judith Light as Jeanne and Nikki Cox as his sister Andrea. Ryan White had a small cameo appearance as "Chad" in the film, playing a boy also suffering from HIV who befriends Haas.^[28] Others in the film included Sarah Jessica Parker as a sympathetic nurse, George Dzundza as his doctor, and George C. Scott as Ryan's attorney, who legally argued against school board authorities.^[43] Nielsen estimated that the movie was seen by 15 million viewers.^[44] Some residents of Kokomo felt that the movie was condemning of them for their actions against White. After the film aired, the office of Kokomo mayor Robert F. Sargent was flooded with complaints from across the country, although Robert Sargent had not been elected to the office during the time of the controversy.^[29]^[30]

By early 1990, White's health was deteriorating rapidly. In his final public appearance, he hosted an after-Oscars party with former president Ronald Reagan and his wife Nancy Reagan in California.^[47] Although his health was declining, Ryan White spoke to the Reagans about his date to the prom and his hopes of attending college.^[48]

Death

On March 29, 1990, Ryan White entered Riley Hospital for Children in Indianapolis with a respiratory tract infection. As his condition deteriorated, he was sedated and placed on a ventilator. He was visited by Elton John and the hospital was deluged with calls from well-wishers. Ryan White died on April 8, 1990.^[31]

Over 1,500 people attended Ryan's funeral on April 11, a standing-room only event held at the Second Presbyterian Church on Meridian Street in Indianapolis.^[47] White's pallbearers included Elton John, football star Howie Long and Phil Donahue. Elton John performed "Skyline Pigeon" at the funeral. The funeral was also attended by Michael Jackson and Barbara Bush. On the day of the funeral, Ronald Reagan wrote a tribute to Ryan that appeared in The Washington Post.^[32]^[33] Reagan's statement about AIDS and White's funeral were seen as indicators of how greatly Ryan White had helped change perceptions of AIDS.^[32]

Ryan White is buried in Cicero, close to the former home of his mother. In the year following his death, his grave was vandalized on four occasions.^[34] As time passed, White's grave became a shrine for his admirers.^[35]

Legacy

Ryan White was one of a handful of highly visible people with AIDS in the 1980s and early 1990s who helped change the public perception of the disease. Ryan, along with actor Rock Hudson, was one of the earliest public faces of AIDS. Other public figures who were infected with HIV included Keith Haring, Holly Johnson, Freddie Mercury, Ray brothers, Magic Johnson, Greg Louganis, Arthur Ashe, Liberace, Eazy-E, Anthony Perkins, Randy Shilts, Ricky Wilson and Robert Reed. Ryan White helped to increase public awareness that HIV/AIDS was a significant epidemic.^[36]

Numerous charities formed around White's death. The Indiana University Dance Marathon, started in 1991, raises money for the Riley Hospital for Children. Between 1991 and 2016, this event helped raise over $28 million for children at Riley.^[37] The money raised has also helped found the Ryan White Infectious Disease Clinic at the hospital to take care of the nation's sickest children. Ryan's personal physician, with whom he was close friends, Dr. Martin Kleiman, became the Ryan White Professor of Pediatrics at Indiana University School of Medicine in Indianapolis. In a 1993 interview, prominent gay rights and AIDS activist Larry Kramer said, "I think little Ryan White probably did more to change the face of this illness and to move people than anyone. And he continues to be a presence through his mom, Jeanne White. She has an incredibly moving presence as she speaks around the world."^[38]

In 1992, White's mother founded the national nonprofit Ryan White Foundation. The foundation worked to increase awareness of HIV/AIDS-related issues, with a focus on hemophiliacs like Ryan White, and on families caring for relatives with the disease.^[39] The foundation was active throughout the 1990s, with donations reaching $300,000 a year in 1997. Between 1997 and 2000, however, AIDS donations declined nationwide by 21%, and the Ryan White Foundation saw its donation level drop to $100,000 a year. In 2000, Ryan's mother closed the foundation, and merged its remaining assets with AIDS Action, a larger charity. She became a spokeswoman for AIDS activism and continues to arrange speaking events through the site devoted to her son, ryanwhite.com.^[40] White's high school, Hamilton Heights, has had a student-government sponsored annual AIDS Walk, with proceeds going to a Ryan White Scholarship Fund.^[41]

White's death inspired Elton John to create the Elton John AIDS Foundation. White also became the inspiration for a handful of popular songs. Elton John donated proceeds from "The Last Song," which appears on his album The One, to a Ryan White fund at Riley Hospital.^[42] Michael Jackson dedicated the song "Gone Too Soon" from his Dangerous album to White,^[43] as did 1980s pop star Tiffany with the song "Here in My Heart" on her New Inside album.^[44] In November 2007, The Children's Museum of Indianapolis opened an exhibit called "Making a Difference," which remains a sobering, featured exhibit and continues to develop, while it features White's bedroom and belongings alongside similar tributes to Anne Frank and Ruby Bridges.^[45]

Ryan White and public perception of AIDS

In the early 1980s, AIDS was known as gay-related immune deficiency, because the disease had first been identified among primarily homosexual communities in Los Angeles, New York City and San Francisco. At the start of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the United States, the disease was thought to be a "homosexual problem" and was largely ignored by policy makers.^[18] White's diagnosis demonstrated to many that AIDS was not exclusive to homosexual men. In his advocacy for AIDS research, White always rejected any criticism of homosexuality, although not gay himself.

Ryan White was seen by some as an "innocent victim" of the AIDS epidemic.^[39] Ryan White and his family strongly rejected the language of "innocent victim" because the phrase was often used to imply that gays with AIDS were "guilty". Ryan's mother told The New York Times,

Ryan White CARE Act

In August 1990, four months after Ryan White's death, Congress enacted The Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency (CARE) Act (often known simply as the Ryan White CARE Act), in his honor. The act is the United States' largest federally funded program for people living with HIV/AIDS. The Ryan White CARE Act funds programs to improve availability of care for low-income, uninsured and under-insured victims of AIDS and their families.^[46]

Ryan White programs are "payers of last resort," which subsidize treatment when no other resources are available. The act was reauthorized in 1996, 2000, 2006 and 2009 and remains an active piece of legislation today. The program provides some level of care for around 500,000 people a year and, in 2004, provided funds to 2,567 organizations. The Ryan White programs also provide funding and technical assistance to local and state primary medical care providers, support services, healthcare provider and training programs.^[46]^[47]

The Ryan White CARE Act was set to expire on September 30, 2009, but an extension was signed by President Barack Obama.

See also

References

1. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ryanwhite.com/pages/timeline.html |title=A Timeline of Key Events in Ryan's Life |accessdate=December 2, 2009 |publisher=Ryanwhite.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012032359/http://www.ryanwhite.com/pages/timeline.html |archivedate=October 12, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
2. ^{{cite book|title=Mother of AIDS martyr Ryan White Speaks at Priuis Hall |author=Haylee Brannon |year=2012 |publisher=the Ball State Daily News |url=http://www.bsudailynews.com/mother-of-aids-martyr-ryan-white-speaks-at-pruis-hall-1.2736885 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503095402/http://www.bsudailynews.com/mother-of-aids-martyr-ryan-white-speaks-at-pruis-hall-1.2736885 |archivedate=May 3, 2012 |df= }}
3. ^¹{{cite book|title=Blood Saga: Hemophilia, AIDS, and the Survival of a Community|author=Resnik, Susan|year=1999|isbn=978-0-520-21195-7|publisher=University of California Press}}.
4. ^{{cite news|title=AIDS Victim Begins School By Phone|work=Associated Press|date=August 26, 1985|author=Perlman, Lisa}}
5. ^{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|date=October 2, 1985|title=Official Recommends AIDS Victim Stay Home for School}}
6. ^{{cite news|work=Associated Press|date=November 25, 1985|title=Rule Teen-ager Can Attend Classes|author=Perlman, Lisa}}
7. ^{{cite news|work=Associated Press|date=December 18, 1985|title=School Board Votes to Appeal Decision Allowing AIDS Victim in Classes|author=Perlman, Lisa}}
8. ^{{cite news|work=Associated Press|date=February 6, 1986|title=Boy Can Return To School If Health Officer Approves, Board Says|author=Strauss, John}}
9. ^{{cite news|work=Associated Press|date=February 13, 1986|title=Health Officer Says AIDS Victim Ryan White Can Return To School|author=Perlman, Lisa}}
10. ^{{cite news|work=Associated Press|date=February 19, 1986|title=Judge Denies Motion To Bar Indiana AIDS Victim From Classes}}
11. ^{{cite news|work=Associated Press|date=February 21, 1986|title=AIDS Schoolboy Back in Classroom But Judge Rules Against Him|author=Strauss, John}}
12. ^{{cite news|work=Associated Press|date=March 3, 1986|title=Opposition Group Raises Needed Funds For Bond}}
13. ^{{cite news|date=April 9, 1986|title=Judge Delays Ruling In Ryan White Case|author=Strauss, John|work=Associated Press}}
14. ^{{cite news|date=April 10, 1986|title=Teen-Age AIDS Victim Returns To School after Lengthy Court Battle|author=Kusmer, Ken|work=Associated Press}}
15. ^{{cite news|date=July 18, 1986|title=Parents Drop Effort to Keep AIDS Victim Out of School|author=Huddleston, Susan|work=Associated Press}}
16. ^{{cite news|agency=United Press International|date=November 25, 1985|title=Chronology of Ryan White's Fight to Attend School }}
17. ^{{cite news|work=The Eugene Register-Guard|date=November 26, 1985|title=Ruling sends AIDS victim back to class}}
18. ^¹{{cite book |title=And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic|author=Shilts, Randy |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-312-00994-6 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |authorlink=Randy Shilts|title-link=And the Band Played On }}
19. ^¹{{cite news|work=Associated Press|date=July 31, 1985|title=Domestic news}}
20. ^¹²{{cite news|title=AIDS Victim's Right to Attend Public School Tested in Corn Belt|work=The Washington Post|author=Specter, Michael|date=September 3, 1985}}
21. ^{{cite journal|authors=Friedland GH, Saltzman BR, Rogers MF, Kahl PA, Lesser ML, Mayers MM, Klein RS|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|date=February 6, 1986|volume=314|issue=6|pages=344–349 |title=Lack of Transmission of HTLV-III/LAV Infection to Household Contacts of Patients with AIDS or AIDS-Related Complex with Oral Candidiasis |doi=10.1056/NEJM198602063140604|pmid=3456076}}
22. ^{{cite news|title=Alternative School Opens in AIDS Scare|date=April 23, 1986|work=The Washington Post}}
23. ^¹²{{cite news|title='City Of Firsts' Struggles with Division over AIDS in School|work=Associated Press|date=April 28, 1986|author=Sharon Cohen}}
24. ^{{cite news|work=Associated Press|date=August 31, 1987|title=AIDS Schoolboy Says First Day At New School Went 'Great'|author=Richardson, Fran}}
25. ^¹²³⁴{{cite book|title=Ryan White: My Own Story|author1=White, Ryan |author2=Ann Marie Cunningham|isbn=978-0-8037-0977-5|publisher=Dial Books|year=1991}}{{page needed|date=February 2012}}
26. ^{{cite news |title=A Year After Ryan White's Death, His Mother, Jeanne, Picks Up the Pieces and Carries on His Fight |work=People Magazine |url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20114862,00.html |author=Cohen, Charles E. |date=April 8, 1991 |accessdate=June 14, 2010 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5qURpdscq?url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20114862,00.html |archivedate=June 14, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
27. ^¹{{cite news|work=The Chicago Tribune|date=March 3, 1988|title=Teen's Story of AIDS Prejudice Wins Hearts|author=Franklin, Tim}}
28. ^{{cite book|last1=White|first1=Ryan|title=Ryan White My Own Story|isbn=978-0451173225|year=1992}}
29. ^¹{{cite news|title=Review/Television; AIDS and Hemophilia |work=The New York Times |author=O'Connor, John J |date=January 16, 1989 |accessdate=June 14, 2010 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/16/arts/review-television-aids-and-hemophilia.html |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5qUSNyYLC?url=http://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/16/arts/review-television-aids-and-hemophilia.html |archivedate=June 14, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
30. ^¹{{cite news|url=http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1989/Kokomo-Mayor-Swamped-With-Angry-Calls-Following-Ryan-White-TV-Movie/id-c2a1db1f5aa5d1808344f444b10d06c9|title=Kokomo Mayor Swamped With Angry Calls Following Ryan White TV Movie|date=January 18, 1989|work=Associated Press}}
31. ^¹²{{cite news|title=Ryan White Dies of AIDS at 18; His Struggle Helped Pierce Myths |date=April 9, 1990 |author=Johnson, Dirk |work=The New York Times |accessdate=June 14, 2010 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5qUYvFtAc?url=http://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/09/obituaries/ryan-white-dies-of-aids-at-18-his-struggle-helped-pierce-myths.html |archivedate=June 15, 2010 |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE1DB123AF93AA35757C0A966958260 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
32. ^¹²³{{cite news|url=http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1990/1-500-Say-Goodbye-to-AIDS-Victim-Ryan-White/id-f79ccc93b1aca329e8154d4272a5eaf0|title=1,500 Say Goodbye to AIDS Victim Ryan White|last=|first=|date=April 11, 1990|work=Associated Press|access-date=|via=}}
33. ^¹²{{cite news |title=We Owe It to Ryan|work=The Washington Post |author=Reagan, Ronald |date=January 11, 1990 |authorlink=Ronald Reagan}}
34. ^{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1991-07-09/news/mn-1908_1_ryan-white|title= Indiana: Ryan White's Grave Vandalized Again|last=|first=|date=July 9, 1991|work=|agency=|access-date=October 25, 2016|via=Los Angeles Times}}
35. ^{{cite news|title=Ryan White Admirers Leave Notes, Mementos at his Grave|date=December 10, 1992|agency=Associated Press}}
36. ^¹{{cite book|title=AIDS at 21: Media Coverage of the HIV Epidemic 1981–2002|publisher=Kaiser Family Foundation|author=Brodie, Mollyann|year=2004|url=http://www.kff.org/kaiserpolls/upload/AIDS-at-21-Media-Coverage-of-the-HIV-Epidemic-1981-2002-Supplement-to-the-March-April-2004-issue-of-CJR.pdf|display-authors=etal|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326213042/http://www.kff.org/kaiserpolls/upload/AIDS-at-21-Media-Coverage-of-the-HIV-Epidemic-1981-2002-Supplement-to-the-March-April-2004-issue-of-CJR.pdf|archivedate=March 26, 2009|df=}} Retrieved on September 9, 2007.
37. ^"IU Dance Marathon Raises Record $2.6 Million for Riley Hospital for Children." IU Newsroom. Indiana University. November 18, 2013. Web. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
38. ^{{cite news|work=Playboy |date=September 1993 |author=Nimmons, David |title=Larry Kramer; AIDS activist; Interview}}
39. ^¹²{{cite news|title=At Home With Jeanne White-Ginder; A Son's AIDS, and a Legacy|date=September 24, 1992|author=Witchel, Alex|work=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE7DC153BF937A1575AC0A964958260 }}. Retrieved on January 30, 2008.
40. ^{{cite news|title=Ten years after her son's death, Jeanne White shuts down his foundation but carries on the fight against AIDS|work=People|date=May 15, 2000|author1=Schindehette, Susan |author2=Giovanna Breu}}
41. ^{{cite news |title=Hamilton Heights student government sponsors AIDS Walk |work=Noblesville Daily Times |accessdate=May 18, 2008 |url=http://www.county29.net/cms2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=13735&Itemid=99999999}}
42. ^{{cite news |work=Billboard |date=October 17, 1992 |title=Elton John Assisting AIDS Research; Donating Future Singles Sales Royalties|author=Newman, Melinda }}
43. ^{{cite news |title=Jackson's `Dangerous' Departures; Stylistic Shifts Mar His First Album in 4 Years |work=The Washington Post |date=November 24, 1991 |author=Harrington, Richard }}
44. ^{{cite web |title=Ten Minutes with Tiffany |date=July 9, 2007 |author=von Metzke, Ron |work=Gay Wired |url=http://www.gaywired.com/article.cfm?section=68&id=15453 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208213208/http://www.gaywired.com/article.cfm?section=68&id=15453 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=February 8, 2009 |accessdate=January 27, 2008 }}
45. ^{{cite web |title=The Power of Children |publisher=The Children's Museum of Indianapolis |url=http://www.childrensmuseum.org/themuseum/powerofchildren/html/index.html |accessdate=April 8, 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513122059/http://www.childrensmuseum.org/themuseum/powerofchildren/html/index.html |archivedate=May 13, 2008 |df= }}
46. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://hab.hrsa.gov/history.htm|title=The Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program|work=Health Resources and Services Administration, HHS|accessdate=September 11, 2007 |archivedate=November 27, 2001 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011127143551/http://hab.hrsa.gov/history.htm}}
47. ^{{cite book|title=Caring for "Ryan White": The Fundamentals of HIV/AIDS Treatment Policy|author=Taylor, Jessamy|publisher=The George Washington University|date=August 22, 2005 |url=http://www.nhpf.org/library/background-papers/BP_RyanWhite_08-22-05.pdf}} Retrieved on September 9, 2007.